Libya

The State of Libya is a North African nation bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north and surrounded by Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Niger, Algeria, and Tunisia. Covering 1.76 million square kilometres, it is the fourth-largest country in Africa and possesses some of the continent’s richest oil reserves. Despite abundant natural resources and a strategic position linking the Arab world, the Sahel, and Europe, Libya’s modern history has been dominated by political instability, armed conflict, and economic volatility.

Historical Background

Libya’s history is among the most ancient in North Africa. Indigenous Berber tribes first inhabited the region, later joined by Phoenician traders, Greek settlers, Carthaginians, and Romans, each leaving cultural imprints. The spread of Islam in the 7th century CE integrated Libya into the Arab-Islamic civilisation while preserving elements of local Berber identity.
From the 16th century, Libya was absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, remaining under its control until 1911, when Italy invaded and colonised the region following the Italo-Turkish War. Italian rule, marked by repression and settlement, lasted until 1943, when Allied forces expelled Axis troops during the Second World War. Libya subsequently came under United Nations administration before gaining independence as the United Kingdom of Libya on 24 December 1951, under King Idris I.
A military coup in 1969, led by Colonel Muammar al-Qadhafi, overthrew the monarchy, establishing a revolutionary republic based on his Third International Theory, combining Arab nationalism and Islamic socialism. During the 1970s, oil wealth transformed Libya into one of Africa’s most prosperous states, funding free education, healthcare, and foreign ventures in Pan-Arab and Pan-African causes. However, Qadhafi’s regime also became notorious for state-sponsored terrorism, including the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing and the 1988 Lockerbie air disaster, which led to international sanctions.
In the early 2000s, Libya sought to re-engage with the international community by abandoning weapons of mass destruction programmes and compensating terrorism victims. Nonetheless, the Arab Spring uprising in 2011 ignited a civil war, resulting in the overthrow and death of Qadhafi in October 2011. The National Transitional Council (NTC) assumed power but failed to establish long-term stability.
Post-2011 Libya has faced persistent political fragmentation. The General National Congress (GNC), elected in 2012, was succeeded by the House of Representatives (HoR) in 2014, dividing the nation between rival governments in the east (Tobruk) and west (Tripoli). The UN-brokered Libyan Political Agreement (2015) created the Government of National Accord (GNA), yet power struggles endured. In 2019, General Khalifa Haftar’s Libyan National Army (LNA) launched an offensive on Tripoli, halted by a 2020 ceasefire.
In 2021, the UN-facilitated Libyan Political Dialogue Forum established the Government of National Unity (GNU) under Prime Minister Abdul Hamid Dbeibah, intended to oversee elections. However, polls have been repeatedly postponed amid competing claims to legitimacy. In 2022, the HoR attempted to replace Dbeibah with Fathi Bashagha, later succeeded by Osma Hamad in 2023, further entrenching divisions. International mediation, led by UN Special Representative Abdoulaye Bathily, continues to pursue a national reconciliation and electoral roadmap.

Geography and Environment

Situated in northern Africa, Libya covers 1,759,540 square kilometres, featuring a 1,770 km Mediterranean coastline. Its terrain consists mainly of vast desert plains and plateaus, with few fertile regions. The Sahara Desert dominates over 90% of the territory, limiting agriculture and settlement to the northern coastal strip, particularly between Tripoli and Al Bayda.

• Highest point: Bikku Bitti (2,267 m)
• Lowest point: Sabkhat Ghuzayyil (−47 m)
• Climate: Mediterranean along the coast; arid and desert inland

Libya’s natural resources—notably petroleum, natural gas, and gypsum—form the foundation of its economy. Environmental issues include desertification, water scarcity, and coastal pollution. The Great Man-Made River Project, one of the world’s largest engineering undertakings, channels fossil groundwater from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer to northern cities and farmland.
Despite its harsh environment, Libya features spectacular natural landscapes, such as the volcanic Waw an Namus and the Tadrart Acacus rock art region, reflecting human habitation in the Sahara dating back tens of thousands of years.

People and Society

Libya’s 2024 population is estimated at 7.36 million, making it one of Africa’s least densely populated countries. The population is heavily urbanised (81.6%), with major concentrations in Tripoli, Misratah, and Benghazi.
Ethnic composition:

• Arab and Amazigh (Berber): 97%
• Others (Tuareg, Tebu, and small foreign communities): 3%

Languages: Arabic (official); Italian, English, and Tamazight are also spoken.Religion: Predominantly Sunni Muslim (96.6%).
Median age: 26.2 yearsLife expectancy: 77.7 yearsFertility rate: 3.0 children per womanInfant mortality: 10.7 per 1,000 live births
Libya has high literacy rates and access to clean water (over 99%), yet ongoing conflict has weakened healthcare, education, and gender equality. Youth unemployment exceeds 40%, with female youth unemployment above 68%, reflecting structural labour market constraints.

Government and Politics

• Official name: State of Libya
• Capital: Tripoli (Tarabulus)
• Government type: Transitional
• Chief of State: Mohammed al-Manfi, President of the Presidential Council
• Head of Government: Abdul Hamid Dbeibah, Prime Minister (since 2021)
• Legislature: House of Representatives (200 seats)

Libya’s governance remains divided between rival authorities: the GNU in Tripoli and the HoR-backed administration in Tobruk. The absence of a ratified national constitution and the persistence of armed factions hinder unification. The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) mediates ongoing political dialogue and ceasefire monitoring.
The judiciary, featuring a Supreme Court and regional High Courts, functions unevenly due to fragmented authority. Libya’s flag—red, black, and green stripes with a white crescent and star—symbolises the historical regions of Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripolitania, and represents Islam and unity.

Economy

Libya’s economy is a classic oil rentier system, where hydrocarbons account for over two-thirds of GDP and nearly all export earnings. Economic volatility stems from fluctuating oil output, infrastructure decay, and governance duality.
Key indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $90.6 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $12,300
• Real GDP growth: −0.6%
• Inflation: 2.1%
• Unemployment: 18.7%

Sectoral composition:

• Industry (mainly hydrocarbons): 68%
• Services: 30%
• Agriculture: 1.7%

Trade (2023):

• Exports: $37.8 billion (mainly crude oil, gas, gold, refined petroleum)
• Imports: $33.3 billion (machinery, vehicles, textiles, refined fuels, tobacco)
• Main export partners: Italy, Germany, Spain, France, China
• Main import partners: China, Turkey, Italy, UAE, Egypt

Foreign reserves exceed $92 billion (2024), but budget imbalances and currency devaluation persist. The Libyan dinar (LYD) trades around 4.8 per US dollar. The public sector absorbs most employment and expenditure, limiting private enterprise.

Energy

Libya holds Africa’s largest proven crude oil reserves—about 48.36 billion barrels—and 1.5 trillion cubic metres of natural gas.

• Oil production: 1.25 million barrels/day (2023)
• Gas production: 11.16 billion cubic metres (2023)
• Electricity generation: 100% fossil-fuel based
• Installed capacity: 10.52 million kW (2023)
• Access to electricity: 70% overall; nearly universal in urban areas

Infrastructure deterioration and security disruptions cause frequent blackouts and fuel shortages, highlighting the need for investment in renewable energy and modernisation.

Security and Armed Forces

Libya’s security structure is divided between rival coalitions:

• Government of National Unity (GNU) forces in the west, supported by Turkey.
• Libyan National Army (LNA) under General Khalifa Haftar in the east, backed by Russia, Egypt, and the UAE.

A UN arms embargo has been in effect since 2011 but is frequently violated. Numerous militias, tribal units, and mercenary groups operate autonomously. The unstable environment has enabled extremist activity by groups such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS-L) and al-Qa‘ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM).

Culture and Heritage

Libya’s culture blends Arab-Islamic and Berber traditions, enriched by centuries of Mediterranean interaction. The Libyan Arabic dialect predominates, while Tamazight and Tuareg languages are maintained among Amazigh and nomadic groups.