Lebanon

Lebanon is a small, densely populated Middle Eastern state located on the eastern Mediterranean coast. Its strategic position at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe has profoundly shaped its history, fostering a mosaic of cultural, religious, and political communities. Long a hub of trade and civilisation, Lebanon transitioned from French Mandate rule to independence in 1943. However, it endured a prolonged civil war (1975–1990), leaving lasting social and institutional divisions. Post-war reconstruction generated episodes of economic revival centred on banking and commerce, yet political paralysis, border disputes, and regional conflicts—especially following the Syrian refugee influx after 2011—have sustained fragility. Since 2019, Lebanon has faced one of the worst economic collapses in modern history, characterised by currency freefall, hyperinflation, and mass emigration, even as its human capital, diaspora, and cultural richness remain notable assets.

Background and Historical Context

Lebanon’s lands have historically hosted Phoenician seafarers, Roman colonies, Arab dynasties, and Ottoman provinces, giving rise to a layered heritage. Following World War I, the French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon redefined regional borders, proclaiming Greater Lebanon in 1920 and granting independence on 22 November 1943.
The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) claimed over 120,000 lives and fractured the state along confessional lines that continue to shape governance. Israeli military presence, beginning during the conflict, persisted until 2000, while Syrian forces withdrew in 2005, curtailing Damascus’s overt dominance though political networks remained. The 2006 conflict between Hizballah and Israel inflicted further damage, and since October 2023, cross-border fire has periodically re-erupted, largely contained to southern areas.
Lebanon also absorbed more than 1.5 million Syrian refugees after 2011, straining services, demographics, and fiscal capacity. Borders with Syria and Israel remain disputed, contributing to enduring security concerns.

Geography and Environment

Covering 10,400 sq km (land: 10,230 sq km; water: 170 sq km), Lebanon’s terrain includes a narrow coastal plain, the Lebanon Mountains, the Beqaa Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon range. The highest point, Qornet es Saouda, reaches 3,088 metres. Lebanon’s 225 km coastline along the Mediterranean and 484 km of land borders (Syria 403 km, Israel 81 km) position it as a natural corridor between the Levant and the Mediterranean basin.
The Mediterranean climate yields mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, while mountain zones experience heavy snowfall. Natural resources include limestone, iron ore, arable land, and water, the latter being relatively abundant in a region often facing scarcity. The Nahr el Litani river—entirely within national territory—is a vital hydrological asset.
Land use (2022) comprises 66.4% agricultural area, 14.1% forest, and 19.5% other land. Key environmental concerns include deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and coastal pollution from oil and sewage. Lebanon is party to international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity. In 2023, its CO₂ emissions reached 17.5 million metric tonnes, and PM2.5 concentrations averaged 23.8 µg/m³.

Demography and Society

Lebanon’s 2024 population is estimated at 5.36 million (2.68 million males; 2.69 million females), with a median age of 36.3 years. The population is heavily concentrated in Beirut and coastal areas, where the capital’s metropolitan region exceeds 2.4 million residents (2023).
Age structure (2024):

• 0–14 years: 18.9%
• 15–64 years: 71.6%
• 65+ years: 9.5%

Population growth is 0.61%, and net migration is negative (−0.9 per 1,000) due to ongoing emigration. Arabs constitute 95% of the population, alongside Armenians (4%) and other minorities. Cultural identity varies—many Christian communities emphasise Phoenician heritage distinct from Arab nationalism.
The official language is Arabic, while French and English are widely used in education, business, and media. The religious composition remains diverse: Muslims (67.8%)—divided roughly equally between Sunni and Shia—Christians (32.4%), and Druze (4.5%), with small Jewish and Baha’i communities. Lebanon officially recognises 18 religious sects, each governing personal-status law and political representation.
Socio-economic indicators demonstrate a high life expectancy (79.2 years) and literacy rate (93%). Infant mortality is 6.7 per 1,000, and maternal mortality is 15 per 100,000. Total fertility averages 1.71 children per woman. Physician density is 2.68 per 1,000, with 2.7 hospital beds per 1,000. Urbanisation stands at 89.4%, though emigration has slowed city growth. Obesity (32%) and tobacco use (34.1%) remain public health challenges.

Government and Politics

Lebanon is a parliamentary democratic republic operating under a confessional power-sharing system established by the 1926 Constitution and reaffirmed by the Taif Agreement (1989). The National Assembly comprises 128 members, equally divided between Christians and Muslims, elected every four years by proportional representation.
As of 2025:

• President: Joseph Aoun (elected 9 January 2025, second-round vote 99/128)
• Prime Minister: Nawaf Salam (appointed 8 February 2025)

Cabinet formation requires consensus across sectarian blocs. The legal framework integrates French civil law, Ottoman legacies, and religious personal codes. The Court of Cassation serves as the apex judicial authority, and the Constitutional Council handles constitutional review.
Political life remains pluralistic yet factionalised, encompassing groups such as Amal, Hizballah, Free Patriotic Movement, Lebanese Forces, Kata’ib, Progressive Socialist Party, and Tashnaq. Diplomatic engagement is wide-ranging: Nada Hamadeh serves as Ambassador to the United States (since September 2025), while Lisa A. Johnson represents the U.S. in Beirut (since February 2025).

Economy

Lebanon’s economy, traditionally service-based, entered an unprecedented financial and monetary crisis in 2019. The banking collapse, currency depreciation, and hyperinflation eroded purchasing power and decimated savings.
Key indicators (2023–2024):

• Real GDP (PPP): $65.4 billion (2023)
• Real GDP per capita: $11,300 (2023)
• Inflation: 221.3% (2023), easing to 45.2% (2024)
• Official GDP: $20.1 billion (2023)
• Public debt: historically 146.8% of GDP (2017)
• Unemployment: 11.6% (2023); youth unemployment 23.6%

The Lebanese pound depreciated sharply from LBP 1,507.5 per US$ (2022) to LBP 89,500 (2024). The economic structure remains service-dominated, with banking, tourism, real estate, construction, jewellery, textiles, and food processing central to output.
Remittances play a vital stabilising role, equivalent to 33.3% of GDP (2023). The current account deficit stood at $5.6 billion. Exports ($11.77 billion, 2023) include jewellery, cars, diamonds, scrap iron, and gold, primarily destined for UAE, Egypt, Turkey, Iraq, and the U.S. Imports ($23.3 billion, 2023), led by refined petroleum, gold, vehicles, and pharmaceuticals, originate mainly from Switzerland, China, Greece, Turkey, and Italy. Households devote around 37% of expenditure to food, reflecting inflationary stress.

Energy and Natural Resources

Lebanon’s electricity access is technically universal but functionally unreliable, with chronic power outages mitigated by private generators. Installed capacity (2023) reached 5.16 million kW, derived from fossil fuels (52.6%), solar (31%), hydropower (15.5%), wind (0.1%), and biomass (0.7%).
Electricity consumption was 4.08 billion kWh, with significant transmission losses (436.8 million kWh). The country consumed 115,000 barrels of refined petroleum per day (2023). Renewable water resources total 4.5 billion m³ annually, underpinning agriculture and industry but under pressure from urban demand.

Infrastructure, Communications, and Transport

Beirut functions as the main maritime and air hub, supported by Tripoli and petroleum terminals at Sidon, Zahrani, and Selaata. The merchant fleet counts 51 vessels (2023). There are 8 airports and 27 heliports (2025), but the 401 km railway system remains inoperative due to wartime destruction.
In communications, fixed telephone lines number 875,000, mobile subscriptions 4.29 million (2021), and internet usage 84% (2023), with 419,000 broadband lines (7 per 100 people).

Defence and Security

The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) encompass Army, Navy, and Air Force, totalling about 70,000 personnel (2025). Responsibilities include border protection, internal stability, counter-smuggling, and civil assistance. Budget constraints hinder equipment renewal and training.
The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) has operated since 1978, maintaining roughly 10,500 peacekeepers in the south and a maritime component. Military expenditure declined from 5.1% of GDP (2018) to 2.9% (2022). Military service is voluntary for men and women aged 17–25, with women comprising around 5% of active forces.

International Engagement

Lebanon maintains broad participation in global organisations, including the United Nations, IMF, World Bank, Arab League, Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and Interpol. It is an observer at the WTO and a signatory to multiple maritime and environmental treaties. While not a member of the International Criminal Court, it cooperates in international legal frameworks through treaty mechanisms.

Culture, Heritage, and Identity

Lebanon’s cultural identity reflects a fusion of Arab, French, and Armenian influences, visible in language, architecture, and cuisine. The country boasts six UNESCO World Heritage Sites—Anjar, Baalbek, Byblos, Tyre, Ouadi Qadisha with the Cedars of God, and the Rachid Karami International Fair in Tripoli.