Jordan

Situated at the crossroads of the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy that emerged from the geopolitical transformations following the First World War and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Modern Jordan embodies a blend of strategic geography, historical Hashemite legitimacy, and a service-oriented economy constrained by scarce natural resources but strengthened by external partnerships and relative political stability.

Background and Historical Context

The roots of modern Jordan lie in the post-World War I mandate system, under which Britain created Transjordan in 1921 from the eastern portion of Mandatory Palestine. Abdallah I, a member of the Hashemite family descended from the Prophet Muhammad, was recognised as Emir. The Hashemites had ruled the Hijaz region until displaced by Ibn Saud and Wahhabi allies in 1925. Full independence was attained on 25 May 1946, marking the foundation of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
Over its history, Jordan has had four monarchs. King Hussein (r. 1953–1999) oversaw the kingdom through turbulent regional dynamics, including the Arab–Israeli conflicts and internal crises such as Black September (1970), when Palestinian militant factions were expelled. Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, annexing them in 1950. However, these territories were lost to Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967. In 1988, Jordan formally relinquished administrative claims to the West Bank in favour of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO). The 1994 peace treaty with Israel normalised bilateral relations while affirming Jordan’s “special role” in Jerusalem’s Islamic holy sites.
The Hashemite custodianship of Jerusalem’s Islamic and Christian holy sites remains central to Jordan’s national identity. The Jordanian Waqf continues to administer the Al-Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount complex under arrangements sustained since 1967 and recognised in the 1994 treaty. Custodianship over certain Christian sites draws historical legitimacy from the seventh-century Pact of ʿUmar.
King Abdallah II, who ascended the throne in 1999, has confronted successive challenges, including the Arab Spring repercussions, substantial refugee inflows, economic hardship, the COVID-19 pandemic, and geopolitical strains following the Israel–Hamas conflict (2023). His son, Crown Prince Hussein, was designated heir in 2009, reflecting continuity in the Hashemite line.

Geography and Environment

Jordan occupies a strategic position in the Middle East, bordered by Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Israel, and the West Bank, with a limited 26 km coastline at Aqaba providing access to the Red Sea. The nation’s total area of 89,342 sq km encompasses the Jordan Rift Valley, the Jordan River, and the Dead Sea—the lowest terrestrial point on Earth at –431 metres. The landscape is dominated by arid desert plateaus and north–south escarpments, with Jabal Umm ad Dami (1,854 m) as the highest peak.
The climate is largely arid, with rainfall concentrated in the western highlands between November and April. Natural resources include phosphates, potash, and shale oil, yet water scarcity remains Jordan’s most critical environmental issue. Renewable freshwater resources are estimated at 937 million cubic metres annually (2022), while total withdrawals exceed 1.1 billion cubic metres. Challenges include salinisation, overgrazing, and desertification. Jordan actively participates in global environmental accords such as the Paris Agreement, and the Conventions on Biodiversity and Desertification.

Demography and Society

Jordan’s population, estimated at 11.17 million (2024), is concentrated in urban areas of the west and northwest, especially Amman, home to over two million residents. The country is 92% urbanised, with a median age of 25 years and a high youth dependency ratio. The total fertility rate is 2.87 children per woman, while life expectancy stands at 76.5 years.
Jordanian society is ethnically diverse due to historical migration and displacement. The population comprises 69.3% Jordanians, 13.3% Syrians, 6.7% Palestinians, 6.7% Egyptians, 1.4% Iraqis, and others. Arabic is the official language, while English serves as a lingua franca in commerce and higher education. Islam (97.1%), predominantly Sunni, is the main religion, with a small Christian minority (2.1%) maintaining recognised rights. The kingdom hosts substantial refugee populations, notably Syrians, Iraqis, and Palestinians.
Health and education indicators are comparatively strong. Literacy stands at 95%, and school life expectancy averages 13–14 years. Health expenditure amounts to 7.3% of GDP, and access to improved water and sanitation is nearly universal. Despite progress, Jordan faces rising obesity (35.5%) and high tobacco consumption (37.1%).

Government and Politics

Jordan’s parliamentary constitutional monarchy blends royal authority with representative institutions. The King serves as head of state, while executive powers are exercised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet, appointed by the monarch. The National Assembly consists of a House of Representatives (138 elected members) and a Senate (69 appointed members). Women hold 19.6% of parliamentary seats and 14.5% in the Senate.
The legal framework combines Islamic law, Ottoman-French codes, and British common law traditions. The Constitution of 1952, amended several times, upholds separation of powers and judicial independence, with the Court of Cassation and the Constitutional Court as supreme judicial bodies.
Jordanian political life includes a wide range of parties, though most remain small. The Islamic Action Front, aligned with the Muslim Brotherhood, remains the most organised. Suffrage is universal at 18 years, and citizenship is patrilineal.

Economy and Public Finance

Jordan’s economy, classified as upper-middle-income, is shaped by limited natural resources, regional instability, and high public debt (102.8% of GDP, 2023). Despite challenges, GDP (PPP) reached $109.99 billion (2024), with 2.5% growth and low inflation (1.6%). The services sector dominates (60.4%), followed by industry (25.1%) and agriculture (5.1%). Major industries include tourism, IT, pharmaceuticals, garments, fertilisers, and potash.
Trade remains vital but imbalanced. Exports totalled $22.19 billion (2023), primarily to the USA, India, and Saudi Arabia, while imports reached $28.92 billion, mainly from China, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. Remittances (8.8% of GDP) and foreign aid are key stabilisers.
Unemployment remains high at 18%, and youth unemployment at 41.7% underscores structural economic constraints. Fiscal reforms target tax broadening, digitalisation, and investment attraction, particularly in renewable energy and logistics.

Energy and Infrastructure

Jordan is fully electrified, with installed capacity at 6.89 million kW (2023). Although fossil fuels still dominate (76.9%), solar (15.3%) and wind (7.7%) sources are expanding rapidly under national strategies for energy diversification. The country remains energy-import dependent, consuming around 97,000 barrels/day of refined petroleum and 5.44 bcm of natural gas (2023).
Infrastructure is well-developed in transport and telecommunications. The Aqaba port serves as Jordan’s sole maritime outlet, while 18 airports and a 509 km railway network facilitate connectivity. Internet penetration stands at 93%, and mobile subscriptions exceed 7.7 million.

Defence, Security, and International Relations

The Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) comprise approximately 100,000 active personnel, with a focus on border security, counterterrorism, and peacekeeping. Military expenditure remains high at around 5% of GDP, and the country maintains strategic cooperation with the United States, holding Major Non-NATO Ally status. Jordan contributes to UN peacekeeping missions, notably in MONUSCO.
In diplomacy, Jordan pursues a balanced foreign policy, maintaining strong ties with Western powers, Gulf states, and regional neighbours. It is a member of the United Nations, Arab League, OIC, WTO, and IMF, among others, reflecting its multilateral orientation.