Israeli–palestinian Conflict

The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is one of the most enduring and complex geopolitical disputes in modern history, centred on the struggle for land, sovereignty, and national identity in the territory historically known as Palestine. It involves deep-rooted religious, historical, and political dimensions and has shaped Middle Eastern and international relations for over a century.

Historical Background

The origins of the conflict trace back to the late 19th century, when Zionism, a Jewish nationalist movement advocating for a homeland in Palestine, emerged in response to widespread anti-Semitism in Europe. At the time, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited predominantly by Arab Muslims, with smaller communities of Christians and Jews coexisting.
Following the First World War, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and Britain took control of Palestine under a League of Nations Mandate (1920–1948). During this period, Jewish immigration increased, particularly due to persecution in Europe and the horrors of the Holocaust. Tensions escalated between Jewish immigrants seeking to establish a state and the Arab population fearing displacement and loss of sovereignty.

The Partition of Palestine and the Birth of Israel

In 1947, the United Nations proposed a Partition Plan (UN Resolution 181), recommending the division of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem as an international city under UN administration. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, but the Arab states and Palestinian Arabs rejected it, arguing that it violated the rights of the indigenous Arab population.
On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel. The following day, neighbouring Arab countries — Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq — invaded, triggering the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–49).
Israel emerged victorious, expanding its territory beyond the UN plan, while over 700,000 Palestinians were displaced or fled, becoming refugees — an event known as the Nakba (“catastrophe”). The armistice agreements of 1949 left:

• Israel controlling about 77% of historic Palestine.
• Jordan annexing the West Bank and East Jerusalem.
• Egypt administering the Gaza Strip.

The failure to establish a Palestinian state sowed the seeds of the ongoing conflict.

The 1967 War and Israeli Occupation

A pivotal turning point came with the Six-Day War (June 1967), in which Israel defeated the combined Arab armies and occupied vast territories, including:

• The West Bank and East Jerusalem (from Jordan)
• The Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt)
• The Golan Heights (from Syria)

Following the war, Israel’s control over these territories became the core issue of the conflict. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 called for Israel’s withdrawal from territories occupied in the war in exchange for peace — a principle later known as “land for peace.”

Rise of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO)

In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was established to represent the Palestinian people and pursue their national aspirations. Under Yasser Arafat’s leadership, the PLO adopted armed struggle as the means to liberate Palestine.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the PLO conducted guerrilla operations and became the principal representative body for Palestinians. It later shifted towards diplomacy, seeking international recognition and peaceful resolution.

Israeli Settlements and Occupation Policies

Since 1967, Israel has built settlements in the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and Golan Heights, areas the Palestinians claim for a future state. These settlements, deemed illegal under international law by the United Nations, have been one of the major obstacles to peace.
The Israeli military occupation also led to restrictions on Palestinian movement, land confiscations, and the construction of the West Bank Barrier (commonly referred to as the separation wall), further intensifying grievances.

Peace Efforts and the Oslo Accords

The Oslo Accords (1993–1995) marked the most significant attempt to resolve the conflict. Brokered by Norway, the agreements established mutual recognition between Israel and the PLO, and created the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern limited areas of the West Bank and Gaza.
Key features of the accords included:

• Gradual Israeli withdrawal from certain occupied areas.
• Palestinian self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza.
• A framework for final status negotiations on Jerusalem, refugees, borders, and settlements.

While Oslo raised hopes for peace, the process eventually stalled due to continued settlement expansion, political violence, and mutual distrust.

The Second Intifada and Continued Violence

The failure of the Camp David Summit (2000) and growing frustration among Palestinians led to the Second Intifada (2000–2005), a period of intense violence marked by suicide bombings, Israeli military operations, and heavy civilian casualties.
The uprising devastated the Palestinian economy and deepened animosity between both sides. In response, Israel built the separation barrier, citing security needs, while Palestinians viewed it as a de facto annexation of their land.

The Gaza Strip and the Rise of Hamas

In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew from the Gaza Strip, dismantling settlements but maintaining control of its borders, airspace, and maritime access.
In 2006, Hamas, an Islamist political and militant organisation, won the Palestinian legislative elections, defeating the Fatah-dominated Palestinian Authority. This victory led to a violent split between the two factions:

• Fatah, aligned with the PLO, controls the West Bank.
• Hamas governs the Gaza Strip.

Since then, Israel and Hamas have engaged in multiple wars (2008–09, 2012, 2014, 2021, and 2023–24), resulting in significant civilian casualties and humanitarian crises in Gaza.

Key Issues in the Conflict

1. Borders and Territory: The main dispute centres on defining borders between Israel and a future Palestinian state. Palestinians demand withdrawal to pre-1967 boundaries, while Israel insists on retaining key settlement blocs and security zones.
2. Jerusalem: Both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital. Israel considers the entire city its “eternal and undivided capital,” while Palestinians seek East Jerusalem as the capital of their future state.
3. Refugees: Approximately 5 million Palestinian refugees and their descendants remain in camps across the Middle East. Palestinians demand the “right of return” to their ancestral homes, which Israel rejects, fearing demographic changes.
4. Security: Israel emphasises its security concerns, citing rocket attacks, terrorism, and regional instability. Palestinians argue that occupation and blockades fuel resentment and instability.
5. Settlements: Israeli settlements in occupied territories are a major point of contention. As of the 2020s, more than 700,000 Israelis live in West Bank and East Jerusalem settlements.
6. Recognition and Sovereignty: Palestinians seek full statehood recognition within the 1967 borders, while Israel demands recognition as a Jewish state and guarantees of long-term security.

International Involvement

The conflict has drawn extensive international attention and intervention:

• The United States has been Israel’s principal ally and mediator in peace efforts.
• The United Nations has passed numerous resolutions calling for withdrawal from occupied territories and recognition of Palestinian rights.
• The Arab League has proposed the Arab Peace Initiative (2002), offering normalisation with Israel in exchange for full withdrawal and a Palestinian state.
• The European Union and other countries support a two-state solution based on mutual recognition and coexistence.

Despite these efforts, the conflict persists due to political fragmentation, lack of trust, and competing national narratives.

Humanitarian and Socio-Economic Impact

The conflict has exacted a heavy humanitarian toll:

• Thousands of civilians have died in wars and uprisings.
• The Gaza Strip faces a severe humanitarian crisis due to blockade, poverty, and infrastructure destruction.
• The West Bank remains under military occupation, with restrictions on movement and economic development.
• Both societies endure deep psychological trauma and loss.

Contemporary Situation

As of the 2020s, prospects for a negotiated peace remain bleak. Repeated cycles of violence, including major escalations in 2021 and 2023–24, have further polarised the situation. Efforts at reconciliation between Fatah and Hamas have also stalled, weakening Palestinian political unity.
Internationally, recognition of Palestinian statehood has grown, with over 135 countries recognising the State of Palestine, while Israel continues to expand settlements and assert security control. The peace process, once central to global diplomacy, has largely stagnated.

Historical and Global Significance

The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is more than a territorial dispute; it embodies themes of colonial legacy, self-determination, religious identity, and human rights. Its repercussions extend beyond the Middle East, influencing regional alliances, global energy politics, and international law.
It has also become a moral and humanitarian issue, raising questions about justice, occupation, and the rights of displaced populations.