Israel

Israel, situated along the eastern Mediterranean coast, is a small yet geopolitically significant nation renowned for its technological innovation, military capability, and complex regional relations. Established in 1948, it has developed into a high-income parliamentary democracy with a dynamic economy, a globally recognised research base, and a central role in Middle Eastern affairs. Its history—shaped by conflict, migration, and nation-building—continues to influence regional and international politics.

Historical Background and State Formation

The State of Israel was proclaimed on 14 May 1948 in accordance with the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947, which proposed separate Jewish and Arab states in the former British Mandate of Palestine. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, while Arab states and Palestinian Arab leaders rejected it, leading to the Arab–Israeli War of 1947–1949. Israel’s victory secured its independence and its admission to the United Nations in 1949.
Over subsequent decades, Israel fought several major wars that redefined its borders and regional influence: the Suez Crisis (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), and the Yom Kippur War (1973). During the 1967 conflict, Israel captured the West Bank, East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Golan Heights. While the Sinai was later returned to Egypt under the 1979 peace treaty, the remaining territories remain disputed, forming the core of the Israeli–Palestinian and Israeli–Syrian conflicts.
The Oslo Accords (1993–95) created the Palestinian Authority, introducing limited Palestinian self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Israel withdrew its forces and settlers from Gaza in 2005, but hostilities continued, especially with HAMAS, which governs Gaza. The most serious escalation since then occurred on 7 October 2023, when HAMAS launched coordinated attacks in southern Israel, triggering an extended Israeli military campaign in Gaza.
Israel’s diplomacy has simultaneously expanded through a series of normalisation agreements. Peace treaties were concluded with Egypt (1979) and Jordan (1994), and the Abraham Accords (2020–21) brought formal ties with the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan, consolidating Israel’s strategic reach across the Middle East and North Africa.

Geography and Environment

Israel occupies 21,937 sq km on the eastern Mediterranean coast, bordered by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the southwest, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. The landscape is varied: the Negev Desert dominates the south, fertile coastal plains and central highlands sustain dense population centres, and the Jordan Rift Valley marks the eastern frontier. The Dead Sea lies at –431 metres, the lowest terrestrial point on Earth, while Mitspe Shlagim (2,224 m) in the north is the highest elevation.
The climate is predominantly Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters, though the south is arid. Natural resources include potash, phosphates, copper ore, and offshore natural gas, but freshwater and arable land (29.5%) are limited. The Dead Sea and Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) remain vital to national water supply.
Environmental pressures include desertification, air pollution, and aquifer depletion, but Israel mitigates these challenges through advanced irrigation systems and desalination technology, which supplies over half its potable water. Carbon emissions totalled 64.4 million tonnes (2023), and 30.4% of municipal waste is recycled—the region’s highest rate.

Population and Society

As of 2024, Israel’s population stands at 9.4 million, comprising 73.5% Jewish, 21.1% Arab, and 5.4% other minorities. Population growth remains robust at 1.58% per year, with a median age of 30.1 years and a fertility rate of 2.92 children per woman, one of the highest among developed nations.
The population is concentrated along the Mediterranean coast, in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, and Haifa, while the Negev Desert remains sparsely populated. Life expectancy averages 83.1 years, and infant mortality is 2.8 per 1,000 births—among the world’s lowest. Maternal mortality stands at 2 per 100,000 live births.
Hebrew is the official language, with Arabic enjoying special status; English is widely understood. Religiously, Judaism predominates (73.5%), followed by Islam (18.1%), Christianity (1.9%), and Druze (1.6%) communities. The national identity blends ancient religious traditions with a modern, secular, and multicultural society shaped by extensive immigration from Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and the Americas.

Health, Education, and Living Standards

Israel offers universal healthcare, with 100% access to safe water and sanitation. Health expenditure (7.9% of GDP) supports high-quality care and a physician density of 3.8 per 1,000, exceeding global averages. Obesity (26%) and tobacco use (18.6%) are the main public health concerns.
Education commands 6.5% of GDP and nearly one-fifth of the national budget (2022). Literacy approaches 100%, and school life expectancy averages 15 years. Israel’s universities—particularly the Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Weizmann Institute of Science—rank among the world’s top centres for scientific and technological research.
Urbanisation reaches 92.9%, with key metropolitan areas including Tel Aviv (4.4 million), Jerusalem (970,000), and Haifa (1.17 million). Living standards are high, reflected in strong healthcare, education, and employment indices.

Government and Political System

Israel is a parliamentary democracy, officially known as the State of Israel (Medinat Yisra’el), with Jerusalem as its declared capital. The Knesset, a unicameral legislature of 120 members, is elected by nationwide proportional representation for four-year terms. The Prime Minister, currently Benjamin Netanyahu (since December 2022), serves as head of government, while the President, Isaac Herzog (since 2021), acts as head of state.
The state operates under a body of Basic Laws, functioning collectively as a de facto constitution, supplemented by the 1948 Declaration of Establishment and the 1950 Law of Return, which grants automatic citizenship to Jewish immigrants. The Supreme Court—comprising 13 justices—holds authority to review laws for constitutional compliance.
Israel’s political system is highly pluralistic, producing frequent coalition governments. Major parties include Likud, Yesh Atid, Religious Zionism, Shas, United Torah Judaism, National Unity, and Yisrael Beiteinu. Political discourse centres on issues of security, religion, judicial reform, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

Economic Structure and Development

Israel maintains a high-income, innovation-led economy, driven by technology and services. Sectoral contributions (2024) are services 72.5%, industry 17.3%, and agriculture 1.3%. Despite conflict-related disruptions, economic fundamentals remain strong.
Real GDP (PPP) reached $472 billion (2024), with per capita income at $47,300. Unemployment (3.2%) and inflation (3.1%) are low, though income inequality (Gini 37.9) persists. Exports ($153 billion, 2024)—dominated by integrated circuits, diamonds, medical equipment, and defence products—go primarily to the United States (29%), China (10%), and Ireland (6%). Imports ($140 billion) consist mainly of vehicles, petroleum, and industrial machinery from China, the U.S., and Germany. A current account surplus of $16.7 billion and foreign reserves of $214 billion reinforce financial stability.
The high-technology sector, particularly in cybersecurity, defence, biotechnology, and AI, underpins Israel’s global reputation as a “Start-Up Nation.” Offshore natural gas discoveries—notably the Leviathan and Tamar fields—have made Israel a net energy exporter to Egypt and Jordan. A 2022 maritime boundary agreement with Lebanon expanded offshore energy development prospects.

Energy, Infrastructure, and Communications

Israel enjoys 100% electrification and 22.6 GW of installed power capacity. The energy mix remains 89.5% fossil fuels, but solar energy (9.4%) is expanding rapidly. Natural gas production (24 bcm, 2023) meets domestic demand and underpins regional exports.
Infrastructure is modern and extensive: 40 airports, major seaports at Haifa, Ashdod, and Eilat, and advanced rail and road networks. Telecommunications infrastructure is world-class, with 87% Internet penetration and 152 mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, enabling widespread digital integration.

Defence and Security

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) form one of the world’s most capable militaries, comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force, with a large reserve corps of over 400,000 personnel. Conscription applies to both men and women, with service periods of 24–32 months. Defence spending (8% of GDP, 2024) is among the highest globally.
Israel’s strategic alliance with the United States provides an annual $3 billion defence grant (2019–2028). The domestic defence industry produces advanced systems such as the Iron Dome, David’s Sling, and Merkava tanks, and exports to numerous allied nations. The Israel Space Agency (ISA) leads an active space programme, focusing on satellite and micro-launch technologies.

Foreign Relations and International Standing

Israel participates in major global organisations, including the UN, OECD, WTO, IMF, IAEA, and Interpol. Through the Abraham Accords, Israel has broadened regional ties, yet tensions persist over Palestinian statehood, settlement policy, and Iranian influence. Its diplomacy emphasises technological cooperation, counterterrorism, and regional integration while maintaining close relations with the United States and expanding partnerships in Asia and Africa.

Culture and Heritage

Israel’s cultural identity combines ancient heritage with modern innovation. The Star of David and Menorah are enduring national symbols, and the flag’s blue and white design evokes the Jewish prayer shawl (tallit). The national anthem “Hatikvah” (The Hope) expresses the Jewish aspiration for national renewal.