Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation, was one of the world’s earliest and most advanced urban cultures. Flourishing between approximately 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, it developed along the fertile plains of the Indus River and its tributaries, covering parts of modern-day Pakistan, north-western India, and south-eastern Afghanistan. Distinguished by its remarkable urban planning, architecture, and socio-economic organisation, the civilisation stands as a testament to early human ingenuity and collective progress in South Asia.

Discovery and Geographical Extent

The Indus Valley Civilisation came to light in the early twentieth century following excavations at Harappa (in present-day Pakistan’s Punjab province) and Mohenjo-Daro (in Sindh). Archaeologists Sir John Marshall, R. D. Banerjee, and Daya Ram Sahni were among those who first recognised its significance. The discovery revealed a sophisticated Bronze Age culture contemporary with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
The civilisation’s geographical extent was vast, covering over 1.3 million square kilometres. It spanned regions along the Indus River and its tributaries—such as the Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Ghaggar-Hakra. Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, and Chanhudaro. This extensive spread demonstrates a high degree of cultural and economic integration across diverse ecological zones.

Urban Planning and Architecture

The hallmark of the Indus Valley Civilisation was its exceptional urban planning. Cities were meticulously laid out on a grid pattern, featuring wide streets intersecting at right angles. This system facilitated movement, drainage, and organisation within urban centres.
Key architectural features included:

• Citadel and Lower Town: The elevated citadel area housed important public buildings, while the lower town accommodated residential quarters.
• Drainage Systems: Underground brick-lined drains, inspection chambers, and soak pits reflected advanced sanitation engineering.
• Standardised Brickwork: Uniform baked bricks were used across settlements, revealing centralised control or shared architectural norms.
• Public Structures: Granaries, public baths such as the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, and warehouses served as civic and ritual centres.

The precision and uniformity of construction suggest a well-organised civic authority responsible for urban management.

Society and Governance

The social organisation of the Indus Valley people remains partly speculative, as their script—inscribed on seals, tablets, and pottery—has not yet been deciphered. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence points to a relatively egalitarian society with limited signs of hereditary monarchy or military dominance.
The existence of standardised weights and measures, uniform city layouts, and regulated trade implies centralised administrative control. Social differentiation may have existed based on occupation rather than rigid hierarchies, as reflected in the uniformity of residential structures.

Economy and Trade

The Indus economy was primarily agrarian, supported by the fertile floodplains of the Indus and its tributaries. Farmers cultivated wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton—one of the earliest known uses of cotton globally. Advanced irrigation systems and seasonal cropping sustained surplus production.
The civilisation also thrived on trade and craftsmanship:

• Artisans produced pottery, beads, seals, and metal tools using copper, bronze, and stone.
• Long-distance trade connected the Indus Valley with Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia, exchanging commodities such as textiles, metals, and semi-precious stones.
• The discovery of Indus seals in Mesopotamian cities indicates established commercial exchanges.

Art, Craft, and Culture

Indus artisans achieved remarkable skill in sculpture, pottery, and metallurgy. The famous bronze “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-Daro and the seated bearded priest-king are examples of their artistic excellence.
Distinctive features of Indus art and craft include:

• Steatite Seals: Decorated with animal motifs and inscriptions, possibly used for identification or trade.
• Pottery: Painted designs featuring geometric and natural patterns.
• Jewellery: Made from gold, silver, shell, and semi-precious stones such as carnelian and lapis lazuli.

Their artistic expressions demonstrate a refined aesthetic sensibility and mastery over material culture.

Religion and Beliefs

Religious practices in the Indus Valley are interpreted through iconography and material remains. There is evidence suggesting fertility worship, possibly linked to Mother Goddess cults, and reverence for nature and animals. A seal depicting a horned deity seated in a yogic posture is interpreted by some as an early form of Proto-Shiva (Pashupati) worship.
Sacred trees, phallic symbols, and fire altars found at sites such as Kalibangan further indicate ritualistic traditions. However, the absence of monumental temples or palaces suggests religion may have been decentralised and community-based.

Script and Language

The Indus script remains one of archaeology’s greatest enigmas. Comprising short sequences of pictographic symbols, it appears on seals, tablets, pottery, and jewellery. Despite numerous attempts, scholars have not yet deciphered it. The brevity of inscriptions—typically fewer than fifteen signs—has made linguistic identification challenging.
Hypotheses connect the script to Dravidian, Proto-Elamite, or Indo-Aryan languages, but no consensus exists. Its undeciphered state continues to limit understanding of the civilisation’s political structure, religion, and internal communication systems.

Decline and Theories

The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1900 BCE remains a subject of academic debate. Several interrelated factors are believed to have contributed to its gradual disintegration:

• Environmental Change: Shifting river courses, especially of the Ghaggar-Hakra (possibly the ancient Saraswati), and declining monsoon patterns reduced agricultural productivity.
• Tectonic Activity: Earthquakes may have altered drainage systems and disrupted settlements.
• Decline in Trade: The collapse of Mesopotamian trade networks weakened economic stability.
• Sociocultural Fragmentation: Urban centres were abandoned in favour of smaller rural settlements.

By around 1300 BCE, most urban centres had been deserted, marking the end of the mature Harappan phase.

Successor Cultures and Legacy

Following the civilisation’s decline, regional cultures such as the Late Harappan, Cemetery H, and Painted Grey Ware cultures emerged in the north-western subcontinent. These groups maintained aspects of Harappan life, including pottery styles and agricultural practices, indicating cultural continuity.
The Indus Valley Civilisation’s legacy endures in its contributions to urban design, hydraulic engineering, and craft traditions. Its influence can be traced in the socio-cultural evolution of later South Asian societies. Modern research continues to reinterpret its history through advanced archaeological methods, satellite imagery, and genetic studies.