Argentina

Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is the second-largest country in South America and the ninth-largest in the world, encompassing an area of 2.78 million square kilometres. Stretching from the subtropical north to the sub-Antarctic south, the country contains an extraordinary range of landscapes and ecosystems, from the fertile Pampas and towering Andes Mountains to the arid Patagonian plateau. With a population of about 47 million (2024 est.), Argentina is predominantly urban and largely of European descent, shaped by extensive immigration from Spain and Italy between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its capital, Buenos Aires, is a major cultural, economic, and political hub of Latin America.

Historical Development and Political Evolution

Argentina’s path to independence began with the May Revolution of 1810, which challenged Spanish colonial authority, culminating in the 1816 Declaration of Independence by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Subsequent territorial separations of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay led to the emergence of modern Argentina. The nineteenth century was marked by internal strife between federalists and unitarians, culminating in the consolidation of Buenos Aires as the nation’s political and economic centre.
Between 1860 and 1930, Argentina underwent a period of rapid demographic and economic transformation, driven largely by European immigration, particularly from Italy and Spain. Immigrants fuelled agricultural and infrastructural expansion on the Pampas, turning Argentina into one of the world’s richest countries by the early twentieth century through the export of beef, wheat, and wool.
The mid-twentieth century introduced a new era under Juan Domingo Perón, whose populist movement, known as Peronism, combined nationalism, social welfare, and state-led industrialisation. Peronism became a defining feature of Argentine politics, shaping both left-wing and right-wing variants of governance long after Perón’s death in 1974. The Dirty War (1976–83) under military dictatorship resulted in severe human rights abuses, including the forced disappearance of thousands of citizens. The regime’s downfall followed Argentina’s defeat in the Falklands (Islas Malvinas) War (1982) against the United Kingdom.
Democracy was restored in 1983 under Raúl Alfonsín, marking a sustained period of civilian rule despite recurring economic instability. The 2001–02 financial crisis, characterised by default and social unrest, triggered major political reforms. Subsequent governments oscillated between interventionism and market liberalisation—from the Kirchner administrations (2003–15) to Mauricio Macri’s liberal turn (2015–19) and back to state-led policies under Alberto Fernández (2019–23). The election of Javier Milei in 2023, a libertarian economist advocating radical fiscal austerity and deregulation, represents a major ideological shift in Argentine governance.

Geography, Climate, and Environment

Occupying much of the Southern Cone of South America, Argentina shares borders with Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay, and has a 4,989 km coastline along the South Atlantic Ocean. The country’s physical geography encompasses the Andes Mountains in the west—including Cerro Aconcagua (6,962 m), the highest point in the Western Hemisphere—vast plains of the Pampas, and the windswept Patagonian plateau. The Laguna del Carbón (-105 m) in Santa Cruz Province marks the lowest point in the Americas.
Argentina’s temperate climate varies from subtropical in the north to subpolar in the south, with natural hazards such as earthquakes, pamperos (violent windstorms), and flooding. Environmental challenges include deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, and water contamination. The country is an active participant in international environmental treaties, notably the Paris Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and Antarctic environmental protocols, reflecting its responsibility over Antarctic territories.

Population, Society, and Culture

Argentina’s 46.99 million inhabitants are 92.5% urbanised, with nearly a third residing in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area. The population is predominantly of European or mestizo descent (97%), with smaller Indigenous and Afro-Argentine minorities. The median age of 33.3 years and life expectancy of 78.8 years underscore its status as a relatively mature and developed society within Latin America.
Spanish is the official and dominant language, but Italian, English, German, and Indigenous languages such as Quechua and Mapudungun are also spoken. Roman Catholicism (62.9%) remains the principal religion, though secularism is expanding, with 19% identifying as unaffiliated.
Education is constitutionally guaranteed and widely accessible, boasting a school life expectancy of 19 years and public expenditure of 4.8% of GDP (2022). The health sector is well developed, with 5.11 physicians per 1,000 inhabitants and near-universal access to safe water and sanitation in urban areas. However, economic inequality remains significant, and 41.7% of the population lived below the national poverty line in 2023.
Culturally, Argentina blends European sophistication with Latin American traditions. Its global contributions include literature (notably Jorge Luis Borges), cinema, and music, particularly the tango, recognised by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The gaucho tradition continues to symbolise national identity and rural heritage.

Government, Constitution, and Political Institutions

Argentina is a presidential republic under the Constitution of 1853, amended several times to expand democratic rights and balance powers. The President serves as both head of state and government for a four-year term, renewable once. The National Congress is bicameral, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies (257 members) and the Senate (72 members), both renewed on a staggered basis.
Javier Gerardo Milei assumed the presidency on 10 December 2023, after winning a runoff election with 55.7% of the vote against Sergio Massa. His administration launched sweeping reforms to deregulate the economy, reduce public spending, and restructure the central bank. Argentina’s main political blocs include the Libertarian coalition (La Libertad Avanza), the Peronist Union for the Homeland, and Juntos por el Cambio, a centrist–conservative alliance. The judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), follows a civil law system influenced by continental European jurisprudence, with judicial appointments subject to Senate confirmation.

Economic Structure and Challenges

Argentina possesses one of the most diversified economies in Latin America, combining strong agricultural exports with manufacturing and services. However, persistent fiscal deficits, currency instability, and inflation exceeding 70% (2024) continue to undermine economic performance. Real GDP (PPP) was approximately US$1.213 trillion in 2024, but output contracted by 1.7% that year amid steep depreciation of the peso (≈915 per US$).
Sectoral composition (2024 est.):

• Agriculture: 6%
• Industry: 24%
• Services: 53%

Key exports include soybeans and derivatives, maize, wheat, and beef, while major industries produce automobiles, petrochemicals, and steel. Industrial production contracted by 7.2% in 2024, and unemployment stood at 7.9%, with youth unemployment above 21%. The Gini coefficient (42.4) indicates moderate inequality.
Argentina’s leading trading partners are Brazil (18%), China (8%), and the United States (9%). In 2024, exports reached US$96.9 billion, while imports totalled US$80 billion, focusing on machinery, refined fuels, and vehicles. Foreign reserves were US$29.5 billion, with external debt of US$74.4 billion. President Milei’s reform agenda prioritises dollarisation, public-sector downsizing, and privatisation to restore fiscal stability.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Technology

Argentina’s energy mix is diverse and increasingly renewable. Of its 47.6 GW installed capacity (2023), fossil fuels account for 61.5%, hydropower 16.5%, wind 11%, and nuclear 6.9%. The country operates three nuclear reactors (1.64 GW combined capacity) and is constructing a fourth. Natural gas is central to domestic energy use, with 43.7 bcm produced in 2023 and 396 bcm in reserves, mainly in the Vaca Muerta shale formation—one of the world’s largest.
Argentina has achieved universal electrification, and its telecommunications sector is robust, with 132 mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants and 89% internet penetration. The transport infrastructure includes 764 airports, a 17,866 km rail network, and major ports at Buenos Aires, Rosario, Bahía Blanca, and Mar del Plata, underpinning domestic and regional trade.

Defence, Security, and Foreign Relations

The Argentine Armed Forces—comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force—number about 75,000 active personnel. Under civilian command, they are responsible for territorial defence, Antarctic operations, and UN peacekeeping missions (notably in Cyprus under UNFICYP). Defence spending accounts for approximately 0.6% of GDP (2024). Argentina collaborates with Brazil and Paraguay in the Tripartite Command on border security and maintains Major Non-NATO Ally status with the United States.
The National Space Activities Commission (CONAE), founded in 1991, manages an advanced space programme involving satellite design, earth observation, and regional partnerships. Launch facilities at Punta Indio and Córdoba reinforce Argentina’s technological role in Latin America.
Internationally, Argentina is active within the G20, Mercosur, the United Nations, and the Organisation of American States (OAS). It continues to assert sovereignty claims over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), South Georgia, and the South Sandwich Islands, which remain under British administration.

National Identity and Heritage

The national flag, with sky blue and white bands and the Sun of May, symbolises liberty and national unity. The national anthem, composed by Vicente López y Planes and José Blas Parera, dates to 1813 and remains a key patriotic emblem. Argentina’s 12 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Los Glaciares, Iguazú National Park, and the Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis, exemplify the nation’s cultural and ecological wealth.