Humayun

Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun (1508–1556) was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire in India, succeeding his father Babur, the founder of the dynasty. His reign was marked by alternating fortunes — early failures, years of exile, and a triumphant restoration shortly before his untimely death. Though often overshadowed by the achievements of his father and son, Akbar, Humayun played a crucial role in ensuring the survival and continuity of the Mughal dynasty during a turbulent period in Indian history.

Early Life and Accession

Humayun was born on 6 March 1508 in Kabul. As the eldest son of Babur, he accompanied his father on several military campaigns and displayed intelligence and courage. In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat, establishing Mughal rule in northern India. Upon Babur’s death in 1530, Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, inheriting an empire that was vast but politically fragile.
The Mughal dominion at that time stretched over parts of Delhi, Agra, Punjab, and Bihar, but it lacked administrative consolidation. The nobles were divided among Central Asian, Persian, and Indian factions, and many regional rulers were restive.

Early Challenges and Political Situation

Humayun faced formidable challenges from the outset:

• The empire’s finances were weak due to constant warfare and lack of systematic revenue collection.
• Several rivals, including his brothers and Afghan chieftains, contested his authority.
• The Rajputs, Afghans, and Gujarat Sultanate remained powerful regional forces.

Moreover, Humayun lacked his father’s military discipline and often allowed personal indulgences to interfere with his duties.

Major Rivals and Conflicts

1. Afghan Challenge – Sher Shah Suri: The most formidable opponent Humayun faced was Sher Khan (later Sher Shah Suri), an Afghan noble who initially served under the Lodis and gradually consolidated his power in Bihar and Bengal.

• In 1537, Humayun launched a campaign against Sher Khan, capturing Chunar Fort and advancing towards Gaur in Bengal.
• However, his prolonged stay in Bengal allowed Sher Khan to strengthen his position.

The decisive encounters took place in:

• Battle of Chausa (1539): Humayun suffered a severe defeat; he barely escaped by crossing the Ganges.
• Battle of Kannauj (1540): Sher Shah again defeated Humayun, forcing him to abandon Delhi and Agra.

These defeats ended the first phase of Mughal rule in India and marked the beginning of the Suri Dynasty under Sher Shah Suri, who ruled with remarkable administrative skill.

Period of Exile (1540–1555)

After his defeat, Humayun wandered for years in search of refuge and support. This 15-year exile was the most difficult phase of his life and tested his resilience and diplomacy.
1. Flight through Rajasthan and Sindh:

• He sought help from Rana Pratap Singh of Amarkot and Maldeo Rathore of Marwar, but received little assistance.
• During his stay in Sindh, his wife Hamida Banu Begum gave birth to his son Akbar (1542) at Umerkot, an event that symbolised hope for the Mughal lineage.

2. Refuge in Persia:

• Eventually, Humayun sought asylum at the court of Shah Tahmasp I, the Safavid ruler of Persia.
• The Persian king received him with honour but on the condition that Humayun accept Shia Islam and recognise Persian suzerainty.
• In return, Humayun received military aid and resources to recover his lost territories.

3. Re-conquest of Kabul and Kandahar: With Persian assistance, Humayun captured Kandahar (1545) and Kabul, regaining his family’s ancestral stronghold. This also led to a conflict with his brother Kamran Mirza, who had controlled these regions. After several clashes, Kamran was defeated and later blinded, allowing Humayun to consolidate his base in Afghanistan.

Restoration of the Mughal Empire

The death of Sher Shah Suri (1545) and the subsequent disunity among his successors created an opportunity for Humayun’s return to India.
By 1554, he had organised a strong army, aided by loyal generals such as Bairam Khan. The disintegration of the Suri Empire after Islam Shah’s death (1553) made the political landscape favourable for a Mughal restoration.

• In 1555, Humayun’s forces marched into India, capturing Lahore, Sirhind, and Delhi.
• Sikandar Suri, the last significant Suri claimant, was defeated at the Battle of Sirhind (1555).

After fifteen years in exile, Humayun triumphantly re-entered Delhi in July 1555, re-establishing the Mughal Empire.

Administration and Achievements

Although his second reign lasted barely a year, Humayun took steps to restore administrative order and reassert imperial authority:

• He reappointed experienced officers and reorganised the revenue and military departments.
• Efforts were made to restore law and stability in the recovered provinces.
• He laid the foundations for a centralised bureaucracy that his son Akbar later perfected.

Culturally, Humayun was a patron of art, astronomy, and Persian literature. His court blended Central Asian and Persian influences, which shaped the Mughal cultural ethos.

Death of Humayun

Humayun’s restored rule was tragically short-lived. On 24 January 1556, while descending the steps of his library at Purana Qila (Old Fort) in Delhi, he slipped and fell after hearing the call to prayer, suffering fatal injuries.
He was initially buried at Purana Qila, but his remains were later transferred by his widow Hamida Banu Begum to a grand mausoleum in Delhi, now known as Humayun’s Tomb.
This structure, completed in 1570, is a masterpiece of Mughal architecture, blending Persian and Indian styles. It also served as an architectural inspiration for later monuments such as the Taj Mahal.

Legacy and Assessment

Despite his failures, Humayun’s reign is significant for several reasons:

1. Survival of the Mughal Dynasty:
   • Humayun’s perseverance during exile ensured the dynasty’s continuity.
   • His restoration paved the way for the brilliant reign of Akbar, who built upon his father’s foundations.
2. Cultural Synthesis:
   • The Persian cultural influence introduced during his exile in Iran shaped Mughal art, language, and court etiquette.
3. Architectural Heritage:
   • Humayun’s Tomb stands as a symbol of the Mughal synthesis of Persian elegance and Indian craftsmanship.
4. Historical Transition:
   • His reign represents the transition between the founding of the empire under Babur and its consolidation under Akbar.