Hashad al-Shabi
Hashd al-Shaʿbi, officially known as the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) or Popular Mobilization Units (PMU), is a coalition of predominantly Shia militias in Iraq formed in 2014 to combat the rapid expansion of the Islamic State (IS). Over time, it has evolved from a volunteer defence force into an influential military and political institution within Iraq’s security and governance structure.
Origins and Formation
The formation of Hashd al-Shaʿbi was a direct response to the 2014 crisis when the Islamic State seized large areas of northern and western Iraq, including Mosul. In June 2014, the Shia cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani issued a religious decree (fatwā) calling upon Iraqis to defend the nation and assist the armed forces. This appeal prompted thousands of volunteers to join newly organised militia groups, many of which already existed as part of Iraq’s post-2003 militia landscape.
Under the government of Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, the Commission for the Popular Mobilization Forces was formally established to coordinate and manage these volunteer groups. The PMF brought together an estimated 50 to 70 militias, varying in ideology, leadership, and degree of loyalty to the central government or external patrons.
Legal Status and Integration into the State
In November 2016, Iraq’s parliament passed a law granting the PMF official recognition as part of the country’s security forces. This legislation placed Hashd al-Shaʿbi under the authority of the Prime Minister, who also serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The law sought to institutionalise the PMF, providing salaries, ranks, and operational regulations similar to those of the national army.
However, integration has remained only partial. Several powerful factions retain their independent command structures and political affiliations. While some groups maintain strong nationalist loyalties to Iraq’s state institutions, others are closely aligned with Iran’s Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), reflecting diverse sources of influence and funding.
Composition and Major Factions
Although primarily composed of Shia militias, Hashd al-Shaʿbi also includes Sunni tribal forces, Christian units, Yazidi formations, and Turkmen battalions. This diverse composition aimed to project a national, cross-sectarian image, though Shia dominance remains central to its identity.
Key factions within the PMF include:
- Badr Organization – the oldest and most organised component, historically linked to Iran.
- Kata’ib Hezbollah – a powerful and ideologically pro-Iranian group.
- Asa’ib Ahl al-Haq – a militia with both political and military wings.
- Saraya al-Salam – loyal to cleric Muqtada al-Sadr, maintaining a more Iraqi nationalist stance.
These militias vary in discipline, structure, and degree of autonomy, often reflecting the complex sectarian and geopolitical divisions within Iraq.
Role in the War Against the Islamic State
The PMF was instrumental in the campaign to reclaim territory from the Islamic State between 2014 and 2017. It fought alongside Iraqi army and police units in key operations such as the liberation of Tikrit, Fallujah, and Mosul. Its battlefield effectiveness, combined with the high number of casualties suffered, earned it substantial popular legitimacy, particularly among Shia communities who viewed the PMF as defenders of Iraq’s sovereignty.
However, the force also faced accusations of sectarian violence, revenge killings, and forced displacement in Sunni areas. These allegations, often directed at specific factions rather than the PMF as a whole, have remained a source of controversy.
Political Role and Influence
Since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State, Hashd al-Shaʿbi has transformed into a political and social power centre. Many of its leaders have entered Iraqi politics, forming or supporting parties that contest elections. The Fatah Alliance, representing major PMF factions, gained significant seats in the 2018 parliamentary elections, highlighting the organisation’s influence in national governance.
Beyond politics, PMF groups have become economically entrenched, controlling checkpoints, border trade routes, reconstruction projects, and local industries. Their growing role in governance and commerce has blurred the distinction between state and non-state authority.
Controversies and Criticism
The dual nature of Hashd al-Shaʿbi—as both a state-sanctioned entity and a network of autonomous militias—has led to persistent challenges in consolidating Iraqi state control. Critics argue that certain PMF factions:
- Operate outside formal command structures.
- Maintain independent supply chains and financial networks.
- Exercise coercive power in local territories.
- Receive strategic direction and material support from Iran.
Human rights organisations have also accused some groups of committing abuses during and after anti-IS operations, particularly in Sunni-majority regions. The lack of consistent accountability mechanisms has hindered reforms aimed at professionalising the force.
Post-IS Transformation and Regional Role
After 2017, the PMF shifted its focus from frontline combat to stabilisation, reconstruction, and internal security. It has participated in border patrols, counter-terrorism operations, and the protection of religious sites. Some PMF factions have also been involved in cross-border activities in Syria, assisting allied forces in operations against extremist groups.
The PMF has become an important instrument of Iranian influence in Iraq, often cooperating with Tehran on security and political coordination. This alignment has occasionally brought it into confrontation with United States forces, particularly after the assassination of Qasem Soleimani and PMF deputy leader Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis in January 2020, which escalated tensions between Baghdad, Tehran, and Washington.
Institutional Challenges and State Sovereignty
Efforts to reform the PMF continue, focusing on integrating it into Iraq’s broader security apparatus while curbing factional autonomy. The government has attempted to standardise pay, training, and deployment practices, yet political divisions have impeded full centralisation.
The PMF’s evolution highlights Iraq’s struggle to balance between accommodating non-state armed groups and asserting state sovereignty. Its institutional presence in the Prime Minister’s Office symbolises both its legitimacy and the limits of governmental control.
Significance in Contemporary Iraq
Hashd al-Shaʿbi embodies the complexities of post-2003 Iraqi politics—a fusion of nationalism, sectarianism, and foreign influence. It remains a critical component of Iraq’s security landscape, commanding tens of thousands of fighters and shaping the country’s defence and political trajectory.
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