Greece

The Hellenic Republic, commonly known as Greece, is a Southern European nation situated at the strategic crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Revered as the cradle of Western civilisation, Greece’s philosophical, artistic, and political heritage has shaped global thought for millennia. A modern member of the European Union, NATO, and the Eurozone, it bridges ancient legacy and contemporary European identity, combining deep cultural tradition with democratic governance and Mediterranean dynamism.

Historical Background

The modern Greek state emerged in 1830 following a successful war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, which had ruled the region for nearly four centuries. The new kingdom initially encompassed only part of present-day Greece but gradually expanded through the 19th and early 20th centuries, incorporating territories such as Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Crete, and the Aegean Islands.
During World War II, Greece heroically repelled an Italian invasion in 1940 but was later occupied by Nazi Germany (1941–1944). The occupation caused catastrophic suffering—mass starvation, executions, and destruction—followed by a civil war (1946–1949) between communist and royalist forces. The royalists’ victory aligned Greece firmly with the West, leading to NATO membership in 1952.
In 1967, a military junta overthrew the government, forcing King Constantine II into exile. The dictatorship collapsed in 1974, restoring democracy under Konstantinos Karamanlis and ending the monarchy. Greece became a parliamentary republic, ushering in a new era of political stability.
European integration defined Greece’s late 20th-century trajectory. It joined the European Community (1981) and adopted the euro (2001). However, chronic fiscal imbalances and structural weaknesses culminated in a debt crisis (2009–2019), resulting in three international bailout programmes worth nearly $300 billion. Through austerity, reform, and EU assistance, Greece regained fiscal stability, exited bailout supervision in 2018, and completed early repayment to the IMF in 2022.
Today, Greece is re-emerging as a resilient, reform-driven economy—a regional energy hub and a vital player in EU and Mediterranean affairs.

Geography and Environment

Location: Southern Europe, bordering Albania, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, and TurkeyCoordinates: 39°N, 22°EArea: 131,957 sq km (land 130,647 sq km; water 1,310 sq km)Coastline: 13,676 km (11th longest in the world)Terrain: Mountainous mainland (nearly 80% of area) interspersed with valleys and over 2,000 islands, about 170 inhabited.
Elevation:

• Highest point: Mount Olympus (2,917 m)
• Mean elevation: 498 m

Climate: Mediterranean—mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers; temperate climate zones in the north.
Natural resources: Lignite, petroleum, bauxite, marble, nickel, salt, magnesite, and hydropower potential.Land use (2022):

• Agricultural: 44.3%
• Forest: 30.3%
• Other: 25.4%

Environmental concerns: Air and water pollution, soil erosion, and coastal degradation.Recycling rate: 22.4% of municipal waste (below EU average, improving under circular economy initiatives).Climate goals: Carbon neutrality by 2050; lignite phase-out by 2028.

People and Society

Population (2024): 10,461,091Urban population: 80.7%Population growth rate: -0.35%Median age: 46.5 yearsLife expectancy: 81.9 years
Ethnic composition: Greek 91.6%, Albanian 4.4%, other 4%Languages: Greek (official, 99%); English and French widely spokenReligion: Greek Orthodox 81–90%, Muslim 2%, other/none 8–17%
Major urban centres:

• Athens (capital): 3.15 million
• Thessaloniki: 815,000

Health indicators:

• Infant mortality: 3.4 per 1,000
• Maternal mortality: 5 per 100,000
• Physicians: 6.6 per 1,000 (among world’s highest)
• Health expenditure: 9.2% of GDP

Education:

• Expenditure: 3.8% of GDP
• School life expectancy: 21 years
• Literacy: nearly universal

Demographic challenges: Ageing population, low fertility (1.41 children per woman), and youth unemployment remain major concerns, though digital and green industries are fostering brain gain from returning professionals.

Government and Politics

Official name: Hellenic Republic (Ellinikí Dimokratía)Government type: Parliamentary republicCapital: Athens
Administrative divisions: 13 regions (periféreies) and 1 autonomous monastic state (Mount Athos).Constitution: Adopted in 1975; ensures separation of powers and protection of civil rights.
Executive branch:

• President: Konstantinos Tasoulas (since March 2025) – head of state (largely ceremonial)
• Prime Minister: Kyriakos Mitsotakis (since June 2023) – head of government

Legislature:

• Hellenic Parliament (Vouli ton Ellinon): Unicameral, 300 members elected for 4-year terms via proportional representation.

Major political parties (2023):

• New Democracy (ND) – centre-right
• SYRIZA – Progressive Alliance – left-wing
• PASOK–KINAL – centre-left
• Communist Party (KKE)
• Greek Solution, NIKI, Course of Freedom, Spartans – right-wing and nationalist parties

Judiciary:

• Supreme Civil and Criminal Court (Areios Pagos)
• Council of State (administrative)
• Court of Audit (financial oversight)Legal system: Civil law, rooted in Roman and Byzantine tradition.

Suffrage: Universal at 17 years of age.
National symbols:

• Flag: Blue and white stripes with cross symbolising Orthodoxy
• Anthem: “Hymn to Freedom” (Ymnos eis tin Eleftherian)
• National Day: 25 March (Independence Day)
• Emblem: White cross on a blue shield surrounded by laurel branches

Economy

Greece is a high-income, service-oriented economy, integral to the EU single market and Eurozone. After a decade of crisis, it has regained investor confidence, achieving above-average EU growth since 2021.
Key indicators (2024):

• GDP (nominal): $257.1 billion
• GDP (PPP): $392.2 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $37,800
• Real GDP growth: 2.3%
• Inflation: 2.7%
• Unemployment: 10.2%
• Public debt: 190.6% of GDP (declining trend)
• Foreign reserves: $15.2 billion

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 3.3%
• Industry: 15.4%
• Services: 68%

Key industries: Tourism, shipping, food processing, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, energy, textiles, petroleum refining.
Trade (2024):

• Exports: $108.4 billion (refined petroleum, pharmaceuticals, aluminium, olive oil, tobacco)
• Imports: $122.4 billion (machinery, vehicles, petroleum, chemicals)
• Top partners: Italy, Germany, China, Cyprus, Bulgaria, USA

Energy:

• Electricity access: 100%
• Installed capacity: 24.17 million kW
• Energy mix (2023): Fossil fuels 48.9%, Solar 17.5%, Wind 23.3%, Hydro 9.8%
• Target: 80% renewable share by 2030

Tourism: A cornerstone of the economy, contributing ~25% of GDP and employing 20% of the workforce.Top destinations: Athens, Santorini, Crete, Rhodes, Corfu, and Delphi.

Defence and Security

The Hellenic Armed Forces (Ellinikes Enoples Dynameis) ensure national defence and NATO commitments.

• Active personnel: ~112,000 (2025)
• Military expenditure: 2.9% of GDP (among NATO’s highest)
• Branches: Army, Navy, Air Force
• Conscription: Mandatory for men aged 19–45 (12 months, shorter in some areas)

Modernisation: Acquisition of French Rafale jets, U.S. naval vessels, and German armoured vehicles to enhance deterrence capabilities.
Strategic role: Greece is a pillar of NATO’s southern flank, hosting key installations such as:

• Souda Bay Naval Base (Crete) – NATO’s main Mediterranean training and logistics hub
• Missile Firing Installation (Crete) – joint testing and exercises

Greece maintains defence cooperation with France, the U.S., Egypt, and Israel, reinforcing its geostrategic influence in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Culture and Heritage

Greece is universally recognised as the birthplace of democracy, philosophy, and theatre, and its legacy continues to shape art, governance, and science worldwide. Modern Greek culture harmoniously blends ancient tradition, Orthodox spirituality, and Mediterranean lifestyle.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites (19):

• Acropolis of Athens
• Delphi
• Meteora
• Olympia
• Mycenae and Tiryns
• Old Town of Rhodes
• Mount Athos
• Corfu Old Town, among others

Cultural exports: Greek cuisine (olive oil, feta, seafood), music (rebetiko, laïko), and vibrant festivals celebrating both classical and modern creativity.