Government of India after 1858

The Government of India Act 1858 ended the rule of the East India Company and transferred administrative authority directly to the British Crown. The Act abolished the Board of Control and the Court of Directors, replacing them with the Secretary of State for India. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet, assisted by a 15-member advisory body called the Council of India. The Governor-General received the additional title of Viceroy, serving as the personal representative of the Crown in India. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy under this new administrative framework.

Indian Councils Act 1861

The Indian Councils Act 1861 introduced legislative structural changes and executive reforms.

• The Act added a fifth member to the Viceroy’s Executive Council to handle legal affairs.
• It institutionalized the Portfolio System, introduced by Lord Canning in 1859, where council members led specific government departments.
• The Viceroy gained powers to issue ordinances with a six-month validity during emergency situations without council assent.
• For legislative work, the Viceroy nominated 6 to 12 additional members, at least half of whom were non-officials.
• The Raja of Benares, the Maharaja of Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao joined the Legislative Council as non-official members in 1862.

Expansion of Legislative Framework

Indian Councils Act 1892

The 1892 Act expanded the size and functions of legislative councils at central and provincial levels.

• Non-official members in the Central Legislative Council increased to a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 16.
• Members received rights to discuss the annual budget and address questions on public interest issues with six days’ prior notice.
• The Act introduced an indirect election principle through nominations based on recommendations from universities, district boards, municipalities, and chambers of commerce.

Indian Councils Act 1909

Popularly called the Morley-Minto Reforms, this Act enlarged the numerical strength and operational scope of legislative bodies.

• The membership of the Central Legislative Council increased from 16 to 60.
• It created separate electorates for Muslims, introducing communal representation into Indian constitutional law.
• Satyendra Prasanna Sinha became the first Indian appointed to the Viceroy’s Executive Council as a law member.
• Legislative members gained rights to ask supplementary questions and move resolutions on the annual budget.

Financial and Provincial Decentralization

Steps Towards Financial Devolution

Centralized control over Indian revenues loosened through systematic administrative measures between 1870 and 1882.

• Lord Mayo introduced provincial budgets in 1870 by granting fixed annual sums to provinces for services like police, gaols, education, and medical facilities.
• Lord Lytton transferred departments like land revenue, law, justice, and general administration to provincial control in 1877.
• Lord Ripon replaced fixed lump-sum grants with divided heads of revenue in 1882.

Reorganization of Civil Services and Judiciary

Civil Services Reforms

The Indian Civil Service Act 1861 reserved top administrative posts for civil servants recruited through open competitive examinations in London.

• Satyendranath Tagore became the first Indian to clear the Indian Civil Service examination in 1863.
• The upper age limit for the examination dropped from 23 to 22 in 1859, and further down to 19 under Lord Lytton in 1878.
• The Aitchison Commission on Public Services (1886) recommended classifying services into Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate Civil Services.
• The Aitchison Commission rejected simultaneous examinations in India and raised the maximum entry age to 23.

Judicial Reforms

The British Parliament modernized the Indian judicial structure to create a uniform court system.

• The Indian High Courts Act 1861 abolished Supreme Courts and Sadar Adalats in Presidency towns.
• High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862, followed by the Allahabad High Court in 1866.
• The Indian Penal Code came into force in 1860, followed by the Code of Criminal Procedure in 1861.

Reorganization of the Indian Army

Peel Commission Recommendations

The Revolt of 1857 prompted comprehensive military reorganization based on the Peel Commission report of 1859.

• The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 in the Bengal Army and 1:2.5 in the Madras and Bombay Armies.
• European troops retained exclusive operational control over artillery, heavy armaments, and technical branches.
• Military recruitment policy introduced the classification of Indian communities into Martial and Non-Martial races.
• Regiments were organized on caste, regional, and religious lines to prevent unity among soldiers.

Local Self-Government Institutions

Lord Ripon’s Resolution of 1882

Lord Ripon, called the Father of Local Self-Government in India, issued a policy resolution on local bodies in May 1882.

• The resolution mandated the creation of rural local boards and urban municipalities with non-official majorities.
• Non-official members were elected wherever feasible rather than nominated by state authorities.
• Chairpersons of local bodies were non-officials rather than local bureaucratic officers.
• Local bodies received independent revenue sources to manage sanitation, roads, public health, and primary education.

Key Historical Facts

The administrative system of British India operated under the ultimate authority of the British Imperial Parliament. All financial liabilities of the East India Company transferred to Indian revenues, increasing the national financial burden. The Royal Titles Act 1876 officially proclaimed Queen Victoria as Empress of India (Kaiser-i-Hind). Sir Charles Wood served as the first Secretary of State for India in 1858. The Statutory Civil Service created under Lord Lytton in 1879 allowed nominations of high-born Indians to administrative posts, but it was abolished following the Aitchison Commission recommendations. The Indian Factory Act 1881 marked the first legislative attempt to regulate child labor in industrial units. Local administrative units remained under the direct control of District Collectors, who combined executive and revenue functions. The Police Act of 1861 established a uniform police structure across provinces under an Inspector General of Police. The policy of direct territorial annexation ended, replacing former treaty arrangements with the doctrine of Paramountcy over princely states.