Government of India Act 1919

The Government of India Act 1919, also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed to increase the participation of Indians in the governance of their country. Named after Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India, the law embodied the official policy declared on August 20, 1917, which promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions and the progressive realization of responsible government in India. The Act came into operation in 1921 and introduced structural changes at both central and provincial levels of administration.

Background and Circumstances

Political developments during the First World War created the necessity for fresh constitutional reforms:

• The First World War: Indian cooperation during the war effort increased domestic expectations for political autonomy.
• August Declaration (1917): Edwin Montagu announced in the British House of Commons that British policy aimed at introducing responsible government in India.
• Home Rule Movement: The campaigns led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant mobilized public support for self-rule.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): The Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League presented a united front demanding constitutional concessions.

Introduction of Dyarchy in the Provinces

The Act introduced a dual system of governance called dyarchy in eight major provinces: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces, Madras, Punjab, United Provinces, and Bombay.

Classification of Administrative Subjects

Provincial subjects were split into two distinct categories to divide administrative authority.

Mechanics of Provincial Administration

• Ministers were appointed from among the elected members of the provincial legislature.
• The Governor held veto powers over transferred subjects and could override his ministers.
• The Governor maintained direct control over state finances, restricting the budget allocations for transferred portfolios.

Reorganization of the Central Executive

The central executive remained autocratic and unaccountable to the legislative assembly.

• Composition: The Viceroy’s Executive Council was set up with eight members, three of whom had to be Indians (holding portfolios such as Law, Education, and Labor).
• Viceroy’s Discretionary Powers: The Viceroy retained absolute authority over the central administration. He could override decisions of his council, restore cut demands in the budget, and issue ordinances with the force of law.
• Excluded Subjects: Foreign affairs, defense, relations with princely states, and political matters remained under sole imperial control.

Introduction of Bicameralism at the Centre

The Act replaced the old Indian Legislative Council with a bicameral legislature consisting of two houses: the Council of State and the Central Legislative Assembly.

Structure of the Central Legislature

Legislative Powers

• Both houses enjoyed equal voting rights on general legislation, but financial bills required approval from the Central Legislative Assembly.
• The Viceroy retained the power to pass legislation rejected by the assembly through the mechanism of certification.

Expansion of Electorates and Franchise

The Act broadened representation while reinforcing communal divisions:

• Extension of Separate Electorates: Communal electorates were extended beyond Muslims to include Sikhs in Punjab, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians, and Europeans.
• Direct Elections: Direct voting was introduced for the first time in Indian constitutional history.
• Restricted Voting Rights: The franchise remained linked to property ownership, land revenue payments, and local tax contributions. Only about 3 percent of the adult population received voting rights.

Structural and Institutional Reforms

The Act established several key institutional frameworks for British Indian administration:

• Public Service Commission: Provision was made for setting up a Public Service Commission, leading to the creation of the Central Public Service Commission in 1926 under the Lee Commission recommendations.
• High Commissioner for India: A new office was created in London to handle Indian trade and commerce, taking over certain administrative duties previously managed by the Secretary of State.
• Separation of Budgets: Provincial budgets were separated from the Central budget for the first time, granting provincial legislatures the authority to pass their own budgets.
• Statutory Commission Provision: The Act mandated the appointment of a Royal Statutory Commission ten years after its enactment to inquire into the working of the system. This provision led to the appointment of the Simon Commission in 1927.

Limitations of the Act

The constitutional setup contained structural defects:

• Dyarchy created administrative friction between executive councillors and ministers.
• The Governor held absolute financial and veto powers, leaving ministers with responsibility but little revenue or authority.
• Communal electorates deepened sectarian divisions in Indian politics.
• Central control over provincial finances hampered local governance projects.

Key Exam Facts

• The Act implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Report published in 1918.
• Edwin Montagu served as Secretary of State for India, while Lord Chelmsford served as Viceroy.
• Dyarchy was introduced only at the provincial level, not at the central level.
• Dyarchy operated in eight provinces: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces, Madras, Punjab, United Provinces, and Bombay.
• Direct elections were introduced in India for the first time by this Act.
• Bicameralism was established at the central level with the Imperial Legislative Assembly and the Council of State.
• The Act required three of the six ordinary members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council (excluding the Commander-in-Chief) to be Indian.
• Communal electorates expanded to cover Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
• Provincial budgets were separated from the Central budget for the first time.
• The Central Public Service Commission was established in 1926 based on the provisions of this Act and the Lee Commission recommendations.
• Sir William Meyer was appointed as the first High Commissioner for India in London.
• The Act provided for a statutory commission to review its working after ten years, which resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927.