Mohenjo-Daro

Mohenjo-Daro, meaning the “Mound of the Dead”, was one of the most important and best-known urban centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation. Located in the Sindh province of Pakistan, near the right bank of the Indus River, Mohenjo-Daro represents one of the earliest and most sophisticated examples of urban planning, architecture, and civil engineering in the ancient world. Excavated in the 1920s, it provided invaluable insight into the life, culture, and technological advancement of the people who inhabited the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent around 2500 BCE.

Discovery and Excavation

Mohenjo-Daro was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the direction of Sir John Marshall, who later announced its discovery to the world. Subsequent excavations revealed a remarkably advanced urban settlement that rivalled contemporary civilisations of Egypt and Mesopotamia in complexity and scale.
Due to rising groundwater levels and the fragility of the structures, most of the site remains unexcavated, and its earliest layers are still buried beneath the mounds. Archaeological surveys have identified two distinct mounds — the western citadel, a raised and fortified area approximately 200 × 400 metres, and the eastern lower city, a larger residential and commercial area of about 400 × 800 metres. Together, these mounds form the core of what is believed to have been the largest city of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Urban Planning and Architecture

The city of Mohenjo-Daro exemplifies remarkable urban planning, with streets laid out in a grid pattern, uniform building design, and an advanced drainage system. The city was divided into citadel and lower town areas, suggesting a well-organised administrative and social structure.
The streets and lanes intersected each other at right angles, facilitating efficient movement and drainage. Houses, generally constructed with baked bricks, were of varying sizes but uniformly designed. Most homes had a courtyard, kitchen, bathroom, and often their own private well — an extraordinary feature for a civilisation of that era. Windows and ventilations were carefully placed for light and air circulation, while covered drains ran beneath the streets, carrying wastewater away from residential areas.
Mohenjo-Daro’s extensive use of standardised baked bricks, precise weights and measures, and planned infrastructure suggest a high degree of civic control and standardisation across the civilisation.

Major Structures and Public Buildings

The Great Bath

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is perhaps the most iconic structure of the Indus Valley Civilisation and a masterpiece of early hydraulic engineering. Measuring 11.88 metres in length, 7.01 metres in width, and 2.43 metres in depth, the tank was built with fine burnt bricks, with its floor and walls bituminised to prevent water seepage. Steps on the north and south sides led down into the pool. The bath was supplied with water from a well in an adjacent room, and drains were provided for the removal of used water. Surrounding the bath were open porches and small rooms, possibly used for changing or ritual preparation.
It is widely believed that the Great Bath served religious or ceremonial purposes, reflecting the spiritual and social life of the Harappans.

The Granary

Another significant structure at Mohenjo-Daro is the granary, considered the largest building in the city. It consists of 27 rooms of varying shapes and sizes, possibly used for storing surplus grain. Its design, with air ducts and raised platforms, suggests that careful measures were taken to ensure ventilation and protection from dampness and pests. The granary stands as evidence of organised economic management and state-level control over food resources.

The Assembly Hall

A square pillared hall, measuring approximately 90 × 90 feet, has also been excavated. Archaeologists interpret this as an Assembly Hall, likely used for social gatherings, administrative meetings, or ritual activities. The presence of massive brick pillars indicates that it was a public or civic building of considerable importance.

Material Culture and Artefacts

The excavations at Mohenjo-Daro have yielded a rich variety of artefacts that offer insights into the material and spiritual life of the Harappans.

• Seals: Hundreds of steatite seals were discovered, many depicting animals, script, and religious motifs. The “unicorn seal” is the most frequently found type. One notable seal portrays a figure resembling Pashupati Mahadev (Lord of Animals), surrounded by animals, suggesting early forms of proto-Hindu belief systems. Another seal depicts a woman being sacrificed by a man with a knife, which may symbolise fertility rituals.
• Sculptures: Two of the most famous artefacts are the bronze figurine of a dancing girl, exemplifying metallurgical skill and artistic expression, and a bearded male bust, often referred to as the “Priest-King”, notable for its finely carved details and dignified expression.
• Textiles: A fragment of woven cotton, spindle whorls, and needles were found at the site, providing the earliest evidence of cotton textile production in the world.
• Mother Goddess Figurines: A terracotta figurine depicting a Mother Goddess with a plant emerging from her womb was unearthed, symbolising fertility and agricultural prosperity.
• Weapons and Tools: Copper and bronze implements such as knives, chisels, and spearheads indicate both craftsmanship and defensive preparedness.
• Evidence of Violence: Skeletal remains suggest that some individuals met a violent death, perhaps linked to invasions or internal conflict, leading to the city’s eventual decline.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

The urban sophistication of Mohenjo-Daro points to a highly organised economic and social system. The presence of granaries, uniform weights and measures, and centralised urban planning implies state control or strong administrative governance. Trade was likely conducted with Mesopotamia, as suggested by similarities in seals and artefacts.
The uniformity in domestic architecture, pottery, and script across Harappan sites indicates a shared cultural identity. Art and religion played a significant role, with reverence for natural forces and fertility deities apparent in their iconography.

Preservation and Current Status

Today, Mohenjo-Daro is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (designated in 1980) and one of Pakistan’s most important archaeological treasures. However, it faces severe threats from salinity, erosion, waterlogging, and climatic degradation. The rising water table continues to endanger the exposed brick structures. Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect the site from further decay while ensuring minimal disruption to its fragile remains.