Invasion of Timur

The Invasion of Timur in 1398 CE was one of the most devastating foreign incursions in the history of medieval India. Led by Amir Timur, the ruler of Central Asia and founder of the Timurid Empire, this invasion resulted in large-scale destruction, plunder, and massacre, particularly in Delhi and northern India. Timur’s campaign exposed the weakness of the Delhi Sultanate under the Tughlaq dynasty and hastened its political disintegration.

Background of Timur

Timur, also known as Tamerlane in Western sources, was born in 1336 CE near Kesh (modern-day Uzbekistan). Claiming descent from Genghis Khan through his mother, he rose to power as a military leader in Central Asia and established a vast empire extending from Persia and Mesopotamia to parts of Russia.
A brilliant but ruthless conqueror, Timur sought to emulate and surpass Genghis Khan’s legacy. By the end of the fourteenth century, he had already subdued Persia, Transoxiana, and parts of Russia, and turned his attention towards India — a land renowned for its wealth.

Political Condition of India before the Invasion

At the time of Timur’s invasion, India was politically fragmented and internally weak:

• The Delhi Sultanate was under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (1394–1413 CE), a ruler nominally in power but lacking real control.
• The empire had disintegrated into independent provincial kingdoms — Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, and the Deccan sultanates had all declared autonomy.
• Delhi itself was ravaged by famine, administrative chaos, and continuous revolts.
• The nobility was divided, and lawlessness prevailed in the countryside.

This state of anarchy made India an easy target for invasion.

Causes of Timur’s Invasion

Several motives influenced Timur’s decision to invade India:

1. Wealth and Plunder:
   • India’s prosperity, particularly the riches of Delhi, attracted Timur, who had already looted several wealthy cities in Central Asia and Persia.
2. Religious Motive:
   • Timur presented his invasion as a jihad (holy war) against the infidel rulers of India, using religion to justify his conquest.
3. Political Ambition:
   • He sought to expand his empire eastward and establish dominance over the region once ruled by the Mongols.
4. Instability of Delhi Sultanate:
   • Reports of internal weakness, rebellion, and poor governance under the Tughlaqs made the invasion appear low-risk.
5. Strategic Considerations:
   • India offered rich spoils with minimal resistance, and Timur needed resources to finance his wars in western Asia.

Course of the Invasion

Timur began his Indian campaign in September 1398 CE, crossing the Indus River near Attock.
1. Advance through Punjab:

• Timur captured Multan and Dipalpura (modern-day Dipalpur) after fierce battles.
• His army committed atrocities in Punjab, massacring local populations and destroying towns.

2. Capture of Bhatner and Sirsa:

• The Rajput ruler of Bhatner (Hansi region) resisted but was defeated and executed.
• The city was looted and burned, and thousands of inhabitants were massacred.

3. Battle with the Jats:

• On his march towards Delhi, Timur encountered resistance from the Jats of Haryana, who were slaughtered mercilessly for opposing his advance.

4. Battle of Delhi (December 1398):

• Timur reached Delhi and faced the combined forces of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Tughlaq and his general Malluk Khan at Panipat or near the banks of the Yamuna River.
• The Sultan’s army included a large number of war elephants, which initially frightened Timur’s forces.
• However, Timur used camels with burning hay tied to their backs to scatter the elephants and disorganise the enemy ranks.
• The Delhi army was defeated, and Timur entered the capital unopposed.

Sack of Delhi

After entering Delhi on 18 December 1398, Timur ordered one of the most brutal massacres in the city’s history.

• Thousands of inhabitants — men, women, and children — were slaughtered indiscriminately.
• Contemporary accounts estimate that over 100,000 captives were executed before the battle even began, out of fear of rebellion.
• Mosques, temples, palaces, and markets were looted and destroyed.
• The wealth of Delhi — accumulated over centuries — was carried away to Samarkand, including artisans and craftsmen.

Timur’s army remained in Delhi for several days, causing widespread devastation, before withdrawing to avoid disease and famine resulting from the destruction.

Return Journey and Further Campaigns

After plundering Delhi, Timur marched back through Meerut, Haridwar, and Kangra, defeating and plundering towns along the route.

• He returned to Samarkand in early March 1399, loaded with immense wealth, prisoners, and war booty.
• On his return, he ordered the construction of a grand mosque at Samarkand, called the Jama Masjid (Bibi Khanum Mosque), funded by the spoils of India.

Consequences of Timur’s Invasion

The invasion had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts on India:
1. Destruction and Depopulation:

• The sack of Delhi and northern India led to large-scale massacres, famine, and depopulation.
• Cities, towns, and villages were left in ruins, and agricultural productivity collapsed.

2. Collapse of the Tughlaq Dynasty:

• The invasion dealt a fatal blow to the already weakened Tughlaq dynasty.
• The authority of the Sultan virtually disappeared outside Delhi, paving the way for the rise of provincial kingdoms.

3. Political Fragmentation:

• After Timur’s departure, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated into smaller, independent states.
• The Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451) later rose to power in Delhi as Timur’s vassals.

4. Economic Impact:

• The plunder of wealth and destruction of trade centres led to a severe economic setback for northern India.
• Artisans and skilled workers were deported to Samarkand, depriving India of valuable human capital.

5. Psychological and Cultural Impact:

• Timur’s invasion instilled a lasting sense of insecurity and devastation in northern India.
• The massacre of civilians, including Hindus and Muslims alike, caused deep trauma and resentment.

6. Dynastic Legacy:

• Timur’s descendants established the Timurid dynasty in Central Asia, which later gave rise to the Mughal dynasty in India through his descendant Babur, who invaded India in 1526 CE.
• Thus, while Timur himself brought destruction, his lineage later contributed to India’s political unification and cultural renaissance under the Mughals.

Assessment of Timur’s Invasion

Historians have characterised Timur’s invasion as one of the most destructive and senseless campaigns in Indian history.

• Contemporary chroniclers, such as Sharaf-ud-din Ali Yazdi (author of Zafarnama), glorified Timur’s conquest as a holy war and a triumph of Islam.
• Modern historians, however, view it primarily as a campaign of plunder, motivated by greed rather than religion.
• The invasion revealed the fragility of the Delhi Sultanate, showing how internal decay invited foreign invasions.