Early Congress and British Relations

The early relationship between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the British colonial government was shaped by a combination of cautious cooperation, mutual suspicion, and gradual political awakening. Founded in 1885, the Indian National Congress initially sought to promote dialogue and constitutional reform rather than direct confrontation. The early phase of Congress politics (roughly 1885–1905) is often described as the Moderate Phase, characterised by loyalist and reformist tendencies.
During this period, the Congress leaders — known as the Moderates — believed in British justice and fair play. They hoped that peaceful persuasion, petitions, and constitutional methods would lead the British government to introduce administrative reforms and greater Indian participation in governance. The British, however, viewed the Congress with scepticism, oscillating between cautious tolerance and political hostility as the movement evolved.

Founding of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885 at Bombay (Mumbai) under the initiative of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, along with Indian leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, and Surendranath Banerjee.
Its founding objectives were:

1. To create a common political platform for educated Indians.
2. To promote national unity across linguistic, regional, and religious divisions.
3. To articulate Indian grievances to the British administration.
4. To develop political consciousness and training in parliamentary methods.

The first session, presided over by W.C. Bonnerjee, was attended by 72 delegates from different provinces — marking the beginning of an organised, pan-Indian political movement.

Nature of Early Congress

In its initial years, the Congress was moderate in tone and methods. It believed that British rule in India, though foreign, was not inherently evil and could be transformed into an instrument of justice and progress.
Key Characteristics of Early Congress:

• Faith in constitutional agitation, not confrontation.
• Reliance on petitions, resolutions, and deputations to voice demands.
• Strong belief in British liberal traditions and public opinion in England.
• Focus on economic, administrative, and legal reforms, not independence.
• Leadership drawn primarily from the educated, middle-class elite — lawyers, teachers, and professionals.

The early leaders — Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, and M.G. Ranade — represented this moderate outlook.

British Attitude towards the Congress

The British response to the formation of the Indian National Congress was ambivalent. Initially, some officials welcomed it as a safety valve for the growing discontent among educated Indians. Others, however, viewed it as a potential threat to British authority.
1. The Safety-Valve Theory: It is often argued that A.O. Hume founded the Congress with the tacit approval of the British authorities to provide an outlet — or “safety valve” — for educated Indians’ political frustration. This view, however, has been debated. While Hume may have sought to channel Indian aspirations peacefully, the Congress soon evolved beyond his expectations.
2. Early Tolerance: During the first two decades, the British government allowed the Congress to hold sessions and make representations. Some British liberals in Parliament, such as William Wedderburn and Charles Bradlaugh, even supported moderate Indian demands.
3. Growing Suspicion: As the Congress began to criticise economic exploitation and demand administrative reforms, British officials became increasingly wary. Conservative administrators such as Lord Dufferin (Viceroy, 1884–1888) dismissed the Congress as a “microscopic minority,” representing only a small class of educated elites.

Early Congress Demands

The demands raised by the early Congress were largely reformist and constitutional, aimed at achieving equality within the British Empire rather than independence from it.
Major Demands Included:

1. Expansion of Legislative Councils:
   • Greater Indian representation in both central and provincial legislative councils.
   • Introduction of the principle of election rather than nomination.
2. Indianisation of Services:
   • Recruitment of Indians into the higher civil services and administrative posts to reduce racial discrimination.
3. Separation of Judiciary and Executive:
   • To ensure fair trials and reduce executive interference in legal matters.
4. Reduction of Military Expenditure:
   • To lessen the financial burden on Indian taxpayers and redirect resources toward development.
5. Economic Reforms:
   • Opposition to land revenue policies, salt tax, and unfair trade practices.
   • Demands for protection of Indian industries and reduction of tariffs on Indian goods.
6. Civil Liberties:
   • Freedom of speech and press.
   • Protection of Indian journalists and publishers from repressive laws.

These demands reflected the Congress’s initial faith in the British sense of justice and reform.

British Reaction: Support and Criticism

While some British liberals sympathised with Indian aspirations, most colonial officials and conservative politicians dismissed the Congress as insignificant or subversive.
Supportive Views:

• British liberals in Parliament, influenced by ideals of freedom and self-government, occasionally raised questions about Indian grievances.
• Newspapers like The Manchester Guardian and The Nation sometimes advocated moderate reforms in India.

Hostile Views:

• Many officials, such as Lord Dufferin and later Lord Curzon, regarded the Congress as a “factory of sedition.”
• The British press in India, especially The Pioneer and The Times of India (then British-owned), frequently criticised Congress activities as unrepresentative and divisive.
• The colonial government feared that political awakening among Indians would challenge British supremacy.

The Moderates and Their Method

The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the Moderate Phase of the Congress. The leaders of this period were reformers, not revolutionaries.
Their Methodology:

• Petitions and Memorials: Submitting appeals and requests to British authorities in India and England.
• Annual Sessions: Passing resolutions to draw attention to administrative issues.
• Delegations to England: Sending representatives to present Indian concerns before British Parliament and public opinion.
• Use of Press and Literature: Publishing pamphlets and articles highlighting India’s economic exploitation and grievances.

The Moderates believed that by appealing to British conscience and logic, they could persuade the government to introduce reforms.

Economic Critique and the “Drain Theory”

One of the most significant contributions of early Congress leaders was the economic critique of British rule, particularly articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji in his famous “Drain Theory.”

• Naoroji argued that India’s wealth was being systematically drained to Britain through profits, salaries, and remittances of British officials.
• His work Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) exposed the economic foundations of colonial exploitation.
• This economic nationalism laid the groundwork for later demands for self-government and swaraj.

Strains and Changing Dynamics

By the end of the 19th century, several factors began to strain the cooperative tone of early Congress-British relations:

1. Repressive Legislation:
   • Laws such as the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and Arms Act (1878) created resentment among Indians.
2. Economic Hardships:
   • Famines, poverty, and discriminatory trade policies intensified dissatisfaction with British rule.
3. Partition of Bengal (1905):
   • Implemented by Lord Curzon, the partition was seen as an attempt to divide and weaken nationalist unity, sparking widespread protests and marking a shift from moderate to extremist politics.
4. Rise of Extremism:
   • Younger leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai (the “Lal-Bal-Pal” trio) began advocating for Swaraj (self-rule) and direct action, moving away from moderate methods.

Assessment of Early Congress-British Relations

The early phase of Congress-British relations was defined by dialogue rather than defiance. The Moderates sincerely believed in the fairness of British democracy and hoped for gradual political reform within the empire. The British, however, saw the Congress as a limited elite movement and responded with indifference or hostility.
Yet, this period was crucial for:

• Laying the foundation of political unity across India.
• Educating and mobilising public opinion.
• Exposing economic exploitation under colonial rule.
• Training future leaders who would lead the nationalist movement in later decades.