First Anglo-Afghan War

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) was one of the most significant and disastrous military campaigns in British colonial history. Fought between the British East India Company and the Emirate of Afghanistan, it was primarily a product of “The Great Game” — the strategic rivalry between Britain and Russia for influence in Central Asia. The war aimed to install a pro-British ruler in Afghanistan to prevent Russian expansion towards India but ended in a catastrophic British defeat, exposing the perils of imperial overreach.

Background: The Great Game and British Concerns

By the early nineteenth century, the British Empire in India viewed Russian expansion through Central Asia as a major geopolitical threat. Russian influence appeared to be spreading southwards through Persia and the Khanates of Central Asia, raising fears that Afghanistan could become a strategic route for an invasion of British India.
The British sought to secure Afghanistan as a buffer state against Russia. However, Afghanistan under Emir Dost Mohammad Khan pursued a policy of cautious neutrality, seeking support alternatively from both Russia and Britain to consolidate his power against internal rivals and external threats, particularly from the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
When Dost Mohammad opened negotiations with Russia after Britain refused his request for assistance in recovering Peshawar from the Sikhs, the British Governor-General of India, Lord Auckland, decided to intervene militarily.

The Simla Manifesto (1838)

In October 1838, Lord Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto, declaring British support for Shah Shuja Durrani, a former Afghan ruler deposed by Dost Mohammad. The manifesto justified intervention on the grounds that restoring Shah Shuja would ensure a stable and friendly government in Kabul, safeguard Indian frontiers, and counter Russian influence.
This marked the beginning of the First Anglo-Afghan War.

The Course of the War

1. Invasion and Early Success (1839):

• A combined British-Indian army, known as the Army of the Indus, consisting of around 20,000 troops under Sir John Keane, marched from British India through Sindh and Bolan Pass into Afghanistan.
• Dost Mohammad’s forces offered little organised resistance. In April 1839, the British captured Kandahar, and by August they entered Kabul, reinstating Shah Shuja Durrani as the puppet ruler.
• Dost Mohammad surrendered later that year and was sent into exile in India.

At this stage, the British believed they had achieved their objective — Afghanistan appeared pacified and under friendly control.

2. Occupation and Growing Unrest (1840–1841): The British occupation soon turned unpopular. Afghan tribes deeply resented the presence of foreign troops and viewed Shah Shuja as a British puppet.

• The British garrison in Kabul, commanded by Major-General William Elphinstone, maintained poor discipline and ignored local sensitivities.
• Political mismanagement, corruption, and arrogance alienated Afghan tribal chiefs.
• The reduction of subsidies paid to tribal leaders triggered widespread discontent.

Meanwhile, Dost Mohammad escaped from captivity in 1840 but, finding little support, surrendered again later that year. Despite this, anti-British sentiment continued to grow.

3. Kabul Uprising (1841): In November 1841, a full-scale rebellion erupted in Kabul led by Muhammad Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammad. The uprising quickly spread as Afghan tribes united against the British occupation.

• The British envoy Sir Alexander Burnes and several officers were killed.
• The Kabul garrison, numbering around 4,500 soldiers (including British and Indian troops) and 12,000 camp followers, became besieged.
• General Elphinstone’s indecisive leadership worsened the crisis, and negotiations for safe withdrawal were initiated with Akbar Khan.

4. The Catastrophic Retreat (1842): In January 1842, the British forces began retreating from Kabul towards Jalalabad, about 90 miles away, in freezing winter conditions.

• During the retreat through the Khyber Pass, the column was relentlessly attacked by Afghan tribesmen.
• Nearly all the retreating troops and followers were massacred in the mountain passes.
• Only Dr. William Brydon, an assistant surgeon, reached Jalalabad alive on 13 January 1842, becoming the sole survivor of the retreat — a tragic symbol of British defeat.

5. The British Counter-Invasion (1842): To restore prestige, the British launched a “Army of Retribution” later in 1842 under General George Pollock and General William Nott.

• British forces recaptured Kabul, freed prisoners, and exacted revenge through widespread destruction.
• Shah Shuja was assassinated during the turmoil, and the British decided to withdraw completely from Afghanistan by the end of the year, reinstating Dost Mohammad Khan as the ruler.

Causes of the British Defeat

1. Underestimation of Afghan Resistance: The British failed to understand Afghanistan’s complex tribal dynamics and underestimated Afghan nationalism and hostility towards foreign control.
2. Poor Leadership: General Elphinstone’s weak command, indecision, and failure to maintain discipline demoralised the troops.
3. Political Misjudgment: Imposing Shah Shuja as a puppet ruler alienated the Afghan population, while diplomatic arrogance undermined British credibility.
4. Logistical Difficulties: The mountainous terrain, extreme weather, and stretched supply lines made the British army vulnerable.
5. Cultural Ignorance: Insensitivity to Afghan customs and reduction of subsidies angered tribal chiefs who had initially cooperated.

Consequences of the War

1. Massive British Losses: The war cost the British around 20,000 lives (including soldiers and civilians), making it one of the worst disasters in colonial military history.
2. Restoration of Dost Mohammad: After the British withdrawal, Dost Mohammad Khan was restored to the throne and maintained peaceful relations with the British until his death.
3. Reputation and Prestige: The defeat severely damaged British prestige and confidence. It demonstrated the dangers of interference in Afghanistan and earned Afghanistan the title of the “graveyard of empires.”
4. Policy Reassessment: The war led to a reassessment of British frontier policy. The government adopted a more cautious stance towards Central Asia, focusing instead on strengthening the North-West Frontier Province.
5. Legacy of Distrust: The war left a long-lasting legacy of mistrust between Afghanistan and Britain, shaping future Anglo-Afghan relations and setting the stage for subsequent conflicts.

Historical Significance

The First Anglo-Afghan War stands as a stark reminder of the perils of imperial ambition and miscalculated intervention in a fiercely independent region. It:

• Exposed the fragility of colonial power in unfamiliar terrain.
• Marked a major setback in Britain’s Central Asian strategy during the Great Game.
• Demonstrated Afghanistan’s enduring spirit of resistance to foreign domination.

The war also served as a lesson in military history, illustrating how political arrogance, poor intelligence, and disregard for local conditions can lead to devastating consequences.