Famine Policy under British Rule

Famines occurred in pre-colonial India, but traditional rulers approached them through local relief efforts. Ancient and medieval monarchs remitted land revenue, opened public granaries, provided emergency loans (Taccavi), and constructed public works during crop failures. Under British East India Company rule, famine relief changed drastically. The British prioritized uninterrupted land revenue collection, market non-interference, and fiscal frugality. This approach transformed crop failures into severe famines that caused millions of deaths.

Evolution of Colonial Famine Policy

Early Phase and Company Rule (1765–1857)

The East India Company treated famines as natural disasters that did not require state intervention. The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 wiped out one-third of the region’s population (about 10 million people). Despite the catastrophe, the Company increased land revenue collections in 1771 to maintain profitability. The doctrine of laissez-faire governed colonial administration. Free-market economic theory dictated that the state must not intervene in food grain markets or control prices during shortages. The colonial government continued exporting food grains to Britain even when local populations faced starvation.

Major Famines and Transition to Commission Enquiries

Development of Famine Commissions and Codes

Repeated famines forced the British Crown administration to structure official famine relief mechanisms.

Campbell Commission (1866)

Appointed after the Orissa Famine of 1866 under Sir George Campbell, this was the first formal famine commission. It recommended:

• Official recognition that state intervention is necessary during famines.
• Development of transport networks to move food grains to scarcity zones.
• District collectors taking direct responsibility for organizing emergency relief.

Strachey Commission (1878–1880)

Following the devastating Great Famine of 1876–1878, Lord Lytton appointed the First Famine Commission under Sir Richard Strachey. It established the foundation of formal famine administration in India. Key recommendations included:

• Duty of the State: Explicit state responsibility to provide relief to starving populations.
• Famine Code: Formulation of a standardized Famine Code to guide district officials during crop failures.
• Relief Classification: Division of affected populations into able-bodied workers (provided wages in exchange for hard labor on public works) and infirm persons (given gratuitous relief).
• Famine Relief and Insurance Fund: Annual allocation of 1.5 crore rupees in the budget for emergency famine relief and infrastructure development.
• Irrigation and Railways: Rapid construction of railways and irrigation canals to transport food grains to drought areas.

Provisional Famine Code (1883)

Based on the Strachey Commission report, the government promulgated the Provisional Famine Code in 1883. It outlined three distinct phases of scarcity:

1. Precautionary stage (monitoring crop yields and grain prices).
2. Scarcity stage (opening relief works for able-bodied laborers).
3. Famine stage (declaring full-scale famine and distributing gratuitous relief).

Lyall Commission (1897)

Appointed under Sir James Lyall after the widespread famines of 1896–1897, this commission reviewed the working of the 1883 Famine Code. It recommended expanding gratuitous relief to women, children, and village artisans, while granting liberal Taccavi loans for agricultural recovery.

MacDonnell Commission (1900)

Lord Curzon appointed the Third Famine Commission under Sir Antony MacDonnell following the famines of 1899–1900. It advocated:

• Moral Strategy: Early distribution of relief, advances for seed and cattle, and prompt revenue suspension to prevent agricultural collapse.
• Famine Commissioner: Appointment of a dedicated Famine Commissioner in affected provinces.
• Non-Official Cooperation: Involvement of non-official local bodies and private charities in relief distribution.
• Agricultural Credit: Establishment of agricultural banks and cooperative credit societies to reduce reliance on moneylenders.

Famine Administration in the 20th Century

Cooperative Credit Societies Act (1904)

Following the MacDonnell Commission’s recommendations, the government passed the Cooperative Credit Societies Act of 1904. This legislation created cooperative credit societies to provide low-interest loans to farmers during agricultural distress.

Bengal Famine of 1943

The Bengal Famine of 1943 was a man-made tragedy that resulted in 2 to 3 million deaths. It occurred during World War II under Viceroy Lord Linlithgow and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Primary factors behind the 1943 disaster:

• Denial Policy: Destruction and confiscation of coastal boats and rice stocks in Bengal to prevent potential Japanese invasion forces from using them.
• Inflation and Speculation: War financing caused hyperinflation, enabling grain merchants and hoarders to drive rice prices out of reach for landless laborers.
• Breakdown of Supply Chains: Japanese conquest of Burma cut off major rice imports into Bengal.
• Imperial Priorities: Churchill’s cabinet refused to divert merchant ships to import grain into India, prioritizing war stockpiles in Britain and the Middle East instead.

Key Historical Facts

Lord Lytton held the lavish Imperial Assemblage (Delhi Durbar) in 1877 to declare Queen Victoria Empress of India while millions were starving during the Great Famine. The Temple Entry Test, devised by Sir Richard Temple during the 1877 famine, forced starving laborers to perform heavy manual work on starvation wages (1 pound of rice plus one anna per day) to prove their eligibility for state relief. The Woodhead Commission (1944–1945), appointed to investigate the 1943 Bengal Famine, concluded that the tragedy was a failure of state administration, price control, and food distribution rather than an absolute shortage of grain. Under colonial policy, railways were expanded as “protective works” against famines, but they often accelerated grain exports out of rural areas into world markets during local shortages.