Ethiopia

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is a landlocked nation in the Horn of Africa, distinguished by its ancient civilisation, cultural diversity, and pivotal influence in regional politics. As Africa’s oldest independent state, Ethiopia’s history of continuous sovereignty spans millennia, dating to the Aksumite Kingdom, one of the world’s earliest Christian empires. Today, Ethiopia is a federal parliamentary republic, comprising ethnically based regional states, and ranks among the continent’s most populous nations.

Historical Background

Ethiopia’s history extends deep into antiquity and is often associated with the origins of humankind, underscored by the discovery of Australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”) near Hadar, a fossil estimated at over 3 million years old.
The Kingdom of Aksum (1st–8th centuries A.D.) was a powerful trading empire connecting Africa, the Middle East, and India, and one of the first states to adopt Christianity (4th century A.D.). It minted its own coins and left behind monumental obelisks that remain national symbols.
From approximately 980 B.C. to 1855, the Ethiopian Highlands were ruled by a succession of monarchies and kingdoms. Emperor Tewodros II (1855–1868) unified the Amhara principalities, establishing the foundation of the modern Ethiopian state. Under Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913), Ethiopia expanded territorially and achieved a landmark victory at the Battle of Adwa (1896), defeating Italian colonial forces and safeguarding its independence—a milestone celebrated across Africa as a symbol of anti-colonial resistance.
Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1974) guided Ethiopia into international prominence. He was instrumental in founding the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 and pursued modernisation policies. His reign was briefly interrupted by the Italian occupation (1936–1941) under Mussolini, during which Ethiopia was annexed into Italian East Africa. Allied support enabled the restoration of sovereignty in 1941.
In 1974, Haile Selassie was overthrown by the Derg, a Marxist military junta led by Mengistu Haile Mariam. The Derg instituted socialist reforms but presided over widespread human rights abuses, civil war, and the devastating famines of the 1980s.
The Derg was ousted in 1991 by the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), an ethnically based coalition that introduced a new constitution in 1994, establishing ethnic federalism. Relations with Eritrea deteriorated into a border war (1998–2000), resulting in tens of thousands of deaths.
The death of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi (2012) marked a turning point in Ethiopian politics. His successor, Abiy Ahmed, came to power in 2018, implementing major political and economic reforms, releasing political prisoners, and making peace with Eritrea—an achievement for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize (2019).
However, tensions between the federal government and regional forces erupted into the Tigray conflict (2020–2022), causing severe humanitarian crises. A peace agreement ended large-scale fighting, though ethnic violence and insurgencies persist, notably involving the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) and Amhara Fano militias.

Geography and Environment

Ethiopia lies in eastern Africa, bordered by Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan, covering 1,104,300 square kilometres—slightly less than twice the size of Texas. The country lost its coastline following Eritrea’s secession in 1993, making it landlocked.
The nation’s geography is dominated by the Ethiopian Highlands, bisected by the Great Rift Valley, which contains several active volcanoes and deep basins. Altitudes range from the Danakil Depression (–125 m)—one of the hottest and lowest places on Earth—to Ras Dejen (4,550 m), Ethiopia’s highest peak.

• Climate: Tropical monsoon, with wide regional variations.
• Natural hazards: Drought, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
• Major rivers and lakes: The Blue Nile (rising from Lake Tana), Omo, and Awash rivers; Lakes Abaya, Ch’amo, and Ziway.
• Natural resources: Gold, platinum, potash, natural gas, and significant hydropower potential.
• Environmental issues: Deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity due to population pressure and unsustainable farming.

Ethiopia’s altitude and geography grant it a temperate climate in the highlands, contrasting with arid lowlands and semi-desert regions in the east and southeast.

People and Society

With an estimated population of 118.5 million (2024), Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa, following Nigeria. The population is overwhelmingly young—median age 20.4 years—and predominantly rural, though urbanisation is expanding.
Ethnic composition:

• Oromo: 35.8%
• Amhara: 24.1%
• Somali: 7.2%
• Tigray: 5.7%
• Sidama: 4.1%
• Others: 23.1%

Languages:

• Official: Amharic (federal level)
• Regional languages: Oromo, Somali, Tigrinya, Afar, and others
• Working language: English (used in higher education and government)

Religion:

• Ethiopian Orthodox: 43.8%
• Muslim: 31.3%
• Protestant: 22.8%
• Other faiths (Catholic, traditional): <2%

Social indicators (2024):

• Life expectancy: 67.7 years
• Fertility rate: 3.84 children per woman
• Infant mortality: 32.6 per 1,000 live births
• Maternal mortality: 195 per 100,000 live births
• Access to improved drinking water: 51.5%
• Access to sanitation: 17.8%
• Literacy rate: 47.5% (notable gender disparity)
• Education expenditure: 2.3% of GDP

Rapid population growth, limited infrastructure, and uneven service delivery continue to challenge national development, particularly in health and education sectors.

Government and Politics

Official name: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)Capital: Addis Ababa (“New Flower”)System: Federal parliamentary republic
Head of State: President Taye Atske Selassie (since 2024)Head of Government: Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed Ali (since 2018)
Ethiopia’s bicameral legislature consists of:

• House of People’s Representatives (547 seats) – directly elected
• House of Federation (153 seats) – representing regional states

The ruling Prosperity Party, successor to the EPRDF, dominates political life.
The judiciary, based on civil law, includes a Federal Supreme Court and regional courts. The House of Federation uniquely interprets constitutional disputes.
Administrative divisions: 11 regional states and 2 chartered cities (Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa).
National symbols:

• Flag: Green, yellow, and red horizontal bands with a blue disk and yellow star symbolising unity and diversity.
• These colours, known as the Pan-African colours, have influenced numerous African national flags.

Economy

Ethiopia is one of Africa’s fastest-growing economies, driven by agriculture, construction, and manufacturing. Despite impressive growth, it remains a low-income country with widespread poverty, food insecurity, and high inflation.
Economic data (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $380.9 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $2,900
• Growth rate: 7.3%
• Inflation: 21%
• Public debt: ~31% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 34.9%
• Industry: 25.4%
• Services: 37.6%

Trade:

• Major exports: Coffee, oilseeds, cut flowers, textiles, pulses
• Major imports: Petroleum, fertilisers, machinery, vehicles, plastics
• Key partners: China, USA, UAE, Saudi Arabia, India, Djibouti

Labour force (2024): 54.5 million; unemployment: 3.4%; poverty rate: 23.5%.
Agriculture employs over 65% of the population and remains the backbone of the economy. Coffee continues to be the chief export, while industrialisation is encouraged through industrial parks, manufacturing zones, and public infrastructure projects. The services sector, particularly telecommunications and finance, is expanding as part of Ethiopia’s economic liberalisation agenda.

Energy and Infrastructure

Ethiopia holds immense renewable energy potential, particularly in hydropower, which supplies about 96.5% of national electricity. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile, Africa’s largest hydroelectric project, is set to make the country a regional power exporter.
Despite these advances, electrification is incomplete:

• Total access: 55%
• Rural access: 43%

Transport and communications:

• Airports: 58, including Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa—a major African hub.
• Rail: The Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway links the capital to seaports.
• Telecommunications: Over 70 million mobile subscribers and rapidly expanding internet coverage.

Military and Security

The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) comprises the Army, Air Force, and an emerging Naval Force. Strength is estimated between 150,000 and 300,000 personnel.
Defence spending: 0.7% of GDP (2024).
Ethiopia contributes actively to African Union (AU) and United Nations missions, including ATMIS in Somalia and UNMISS in South Sudan.
Internal security remains fragile, with insurgencies in Oromia and Amhara regions, and external threats from al-Shabaab along the Somali frontier. The government is also developing a cyber command to strengthen national security capabilities.

Culture and Heritage

Ethiopia’s cultural identity reflects its ancient civilisation, religious diversity, and linguistic plurality. It was among the first nations to adopt Christianity and retains strong Islamic traditions, particularly in the east.
Distinctive features include the Ge’ez script, the Ethiopian calendar (seven years behind the Gregorian), and cuisine centred around injera (fermented flatbread) and wot (stew).
Ethiopian music, art, and literature blend African and Middle Eastern influences, with vibrant folk traditions and an enduring oral heritage.