Eritrea

Eritrea (Hagere Ertra) is a nation located in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast, with a Red Sea coastline extending over 2,200 kilometres. Despite its small size, Eritrea holds considerable geopolitical significance due to its maritime position along one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes. Since gaining independence in 1993, Eritrea has maintained a distinctive political system defined by single-party governance, extensive national service, and a policy of strict self-reliance.

Historical Background

Eritrea’s modern history is characterised by colonisation, resistance, and nation-building. The territory became an Italian colony in 1890, forming part of Italy’s East African empire. Under colonial rule, Italy developed infrastructure in Asmara and Massawa, leaving a lasting architectural and cultural imprint. During the Second World War, British forces expelled the Italians in 1941, placing Eritrea under British administration until 1952.
Following the war, the United Nations decided to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia, granting it autonomy within a single state. However, in 1962, Ethiopia annexed Eritrea, abolishing its autonomy and igniting a 30-year war of independence led by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF). The EPLF, supported by rural populations and diaspora communities, waged a protracted guerrilla struggle that culminated in 1991 with the fall of the Ethiopian military regime. A UN-supervised referendum (1993) confirmed independence, endorsed by 99.8% of voters.
Isaias Afwerki, the EPLF leader, became the first—and to date only—President of Eritrea. Post-independence efforts focused on reconstruction, national unity, and avoiding external dependency. However, relations with Ethiopia deteriorated over border demarcation, leading to the Eritrea–Ethiopia War (1998–2000), which claimed tens of thousands of lives. The Algiers Agreement (2000) established the Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), which ruled in Eritrea’s favour in 2007, though implementation stalled until 2018, when Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed and President Isaias signed a peace accord, ending decades of hostility.
In the 2020s, Eritrea reasserted its regional role but faced criticism for its military involvement in the Tigray conflict (2020–2022) and alleged human rights violations, resulting in international sanctions. Nevertheless, the country remains politically stable under its centralised administration.

Geography

Eritrea covers 117,600 square kilometres, slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Pennsylvania.

• Location: Eastern Africa, along the Red Sea between Sudan and Djibouti
• Coordinates: 15°00′ N, 39°00′ E
• Topography: Dominated by highland plateaus, coastal plains, and arid lowlands, including parts of the Danakil Depression, one of the hottest and lowest areas on Earth.
• Highest point: Mount Soira (3,018 m)
• Lowest point: Danakil Depression (−75 m)

Climate:

• Hot and arid along the Red Sea coast
• Temperate and wetter in highland areas
• Semiarid in the western lowlands

Natural resources: Gold, copper, zinc, potash, salt, fish, and potential oil and gas reserves.
Land use (2022):

• Agricultural land: 62.7%
• Forest: 8.7%
• Other: 28.6%

Eritrea’s Red Sea ports of Massawa and Assab give it strategic maritime access connecting Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The coastal islands of the Dahlak Archipelago are rich in marine life and coral ecosystems.

People and Society

Eritrea’s estimated 2024 population is 6.34 million, with a growth rate of 1.12%. The population is youthful, with a median age of 21.3 years and 35.7% under 15.
Ethnic composition:

• Tigrinya: 50%
• Tigre: 30%
• Saho: 4%
• Afar: 4%
• Kunama: 4%
• Bilen: 3%
• Others (Beja, Nara, Rashaida, etc.): 5%

Languages: Eritrea recognises Tigrinya, Arabic, and English as working languages, alongside several local tongues used regionally.
Religion: The population is roughly divided between Eritrean Orthodox Christianity and Sunni Islam, with small Roman Catholic and Lutheran minorities.
Urbanisation: 43.3% (2023), concentrated in Asmara, the capital (population 1.07 million).
Health indicators (2024):

• Life expectancy: 67.5 years
• Infant mortality: 39.8 deaths per 1,000 live births
• Maternal mortality: 291 deaths per 100,000 births
• Fertility rate: 3.43 children per woman

The government provides basic healthcare and education services, though quality and access vary. The national service system, requiring prolonged military or civil duty, has led to mass emigration, contributing to a net migration rate of −8.7 per 1,000 population.

Government and Politics

Eritrea functions as a presidential republic under a one-party system dominated by the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).

• Head of State and Government: President Isaias Afwerki (since 1993)
• Capital: Asmara
• Administrative divisions: Six regions (zobatat) — Anseba, Debub, Debubawi K’eyyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Ma’ikel, and Semienawi K’eyyih Bahri.

The 1997 Constitution was ratified but never implemented, and national elections have not been held since independence. The National Assembly has been inactive for over two decades, and the PFDJ exercises total political authority.
Judiciary: The High Court oversees civil, criminal, and commercial matters, alongside community and sharia courts that manage customary and religious cases. Judges are presidential appointees.
Eritrea is regularly classified among the world’s least free nations in press freedom and political rights indices, with strict controls over expression, religion, and association.

Economy

Eritrea’s economy is state-controlled, relying heavily on agriculture, mining, and diaspora remittances. Despite modest industrial development, the government maintains tight fiscal discipline and limits foreign involvement.
Key economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $2.53 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $700
• Growth rate: 2%
• Inflation: 7.4%
• Labour force: 1.71 million
• Unemployment: 5.6%

Main sectors:

• Agriculture: Sorghum, barley, pulses, vegetables, and livestock
• Industry: Food processing, textiles, beverages, cement, and mining
• Mining exports: Gold, copper, zinc, potash

Trade (2023):

• Exports: China (67%), UAE (26%), Philippines (5%)
• Imports: China (32%), UAE (27%), Turkey (9%), USA (7%)

The nakfa (ERN) remains pegged at approximately 15 per U.S. dollar under a fixed exchange regime.
Challenges include limited infrastructure, international sanctions, and a lack of reliable economic data. Nevertheless, mining projects, especially in gold and potash, continue to attract some foreign investment.

Environment and Energy

Eritrea faces severe environmental degradation from deforestation, overgrazing, and drought, contributing to desertification and declining soil fertility.
Energy profile (2023):

• Installed capacity: 243,000 kW
• Fossil fuels: 89.1%
• Solar: 10.7%
• Wind: 0.2%
• Electrification: 55.4% overall (urban 75.5%)

Although energy access remains limited, the government is expanding solar infrastructure and promoting sustainable agriculture to mitigate climate risks. Carbon emissions remain among the lowest globally at 733,000 metric tonnes.

Defence and Security

Eritrea maintains one of Africa’s largest armies relative to population size. The Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF) comprise the Army, Navy, and Air Force, supported by the People’s Militia.

• Active personnel: 150,000–200,000
• Defence expenditure: Approximately 10% of GDP

National service is mandatory for citizens aged 18–40, officially lasting 18 months but often extended indefinitely. The EDF has been involved in several regional conflicts, including:

• The Eritrea–Ethiopia War (1998–2000)
• Djibouti border clashes (2008)
• The Tigray War (2020–2022)

Eritrea maintains close military cooperation with Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia, and plays a strategic role in Red Sea maritime security.

Culture and Heritage

Eritrea’s cultural identity reflects a fusion of African, Arab, and Mediterranean influences. The nation’s nine recognised ethnic groups share a legacy of resilience rooted in the struggle for independence.
Asmara, the capital, showcases Italian modernist architecture from the colonial period and is designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2017) under the title Asmara: A Modernist African City.