Ecuador

Ecuador (República del Ecuador) is a presidential republic in western South America, straddling the Equator, from which it derives its name. Bordered by Colombia to the north, Peru to the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west, the country combines remarkable natural diversity with a rich historical and cultural heritage. From the Amazon rainforest and Andean highlands to the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador is renowned for its biodiversity, colonial architecture, and evolving democratic institutions.

Historical Background

Before European colonisation, Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empire, integrated under Huayna Cápac in the late fifteenth century. The Inca presence was brief but influential, leaving lasting linguistic and cultural legacies. Following the Spanish conquest (1533), the region became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The city of Quito, founded in 1534, emerged as an administrative and religious centre under Spanish rule.
Colonial Ecuador was characterised by a rigid social hierarchy and economic dependence on agriculture, particularly cocoa and textiles. Calls for independence gained strength in the early nineteenth century, inspired by the broader South American liberation movements led by Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre. Ecuador briefly joined the Gran Colombia Federation (1819–1830) before asserting full independence on 13 May 1830, proclaiming itself the Republic of the Equator.
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were marked by internal instability and ideological struggles between liberal and conservative factions. Periodic civil conflicts, military coups, and contested elections shaped political life. Ecuador also experienced territorial losses to Peru, culminating in the Rio Protocol (1942), which defined the modern border after decades of dispute. A brief border war with Peru in 1995 was definitively resolved by the 1999 Brasilia Peace Agreement.
In the late twentieth century, Ecuador alternated between civilian and military governments, with democracy consolidating after 1979. The adoption of the 2008 Constitution under President Rafael Correa established a framework emphasising social justice, environmental protection, and the Indigenous concept of Buen Vivir (Good Living) — promoting harmony between people, nature, and the state.

Geography

Ecuador spans 283,561 square kilometres, including the Galápagos Islands, located about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. Despite its small size, Ecuador exhibits striking geographical diversity, divided into three principal regions and one insular province:

• La Costa (Coastal Plain): Fertile lowlands supporting agriculture and fishing industries.
• La Sierra (Andean Highlands): A volcanic corridor of valleys and plateaus, containing most major cities.
• El Oriente (Amazon Basin): Lush tropical rainforest rich in biodiversity and natural resources.
• The Galápagos Islands: Volcanic archipelago renowned for its unique wildlife and role in Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.

The Andes Mountains bisect the country, featuring numerous active volcanoes, including Cotopaxi and Tungurahua. Mount Chimborazo (6,267 m), the country’s highest peak, is the farthest point from Earth’s centre due to the planet’s equatorial bulge.

• Climate: Tropical in the Amazon and coastal zones; temperate to cool in the highlands.
• Natural hazards: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and occasional droughts.
• Natural resources: Petroleum, fish, timber, and hydropower.

Land use:

• Agricultural: 21.5%
• Forest: 49.8%
• Other: 28.7%

Ecuador’s Galápagos Islands and Amazonian rainforests rank among the most biodiverse regions on Earth, making the country a focal point for global environmental conservation.

People and Society

Ecuador’s estimated 2024 population is 18.3 million, with a median age of 28 years and 65% of citizens residing in urban areas. The largest cities are Guayaquil (3.14 million) and the capital, Quito (1.96 million).
Ethnic composition:

• Mestizo: 77.5%
• Montubio: 7.7%
• Indigenous: 7.7%
• White: 2.2%
• Afro-Ecuadorian: 2.0%
• Other: 2.9%

Languages:

• Spanish (official, spoken by 98.6%)
• Quechua and Shuar (recognised as official languages of intercultural relations)
• Several Indigenous languages maintained regionally

Religion:

• Roman Catholic: 68.2%
• Protestant/Evangelical: 19%
• None: 8.2%
• Other faiths: 2.3%

Social indicators:

• Life expectancy: 74.9 years
• Literacy rate: 94%
• Fertility rate: 2.21 children per woman
• Health expenditure: 8.3% of GDP
• Urban sanitation access: 100%

Although Ecuador has achieved significant gains in education, healthcare, and poverty reduction, persistent inequalities exist between rural Indigenous areas and urban coastal regions. Migration to the United States and Spain remains a key socioeconomic phenomenon, with remittances forming a substantial income source.

Government and Politics

Ecuador operates as a presidential republic under the 2008 Constitution, which guarantees participatory democracy, Indigenous rights, and environmental safeguards.

• Capital: Quito
• Administrative divisions: 24 provinces
• Legal system: Civil law with recognition of Indigenous customary law

Executive Branch:

• President: Daniel Noboa Azin (re-elected 2025)
• Vice President: elected on the same ticketThe president serves a four-year term as both head of state and head of government.

Legislative Branch:

• National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) – 151 members elected by proportional representation.The 2025 elections produced a divided legislature between the Citizen Revolution Movement (RC/RETO) and National Democratic Action (ADN). Women occupy approximately 45% of seats.

Judiciary:

• National Court of Justice (21 judges, nine-year terms)
• Constitutional Court (nine judges, four-year terms)

Ecuador’s democratic institutions remain relatively strong, though political polarisation, corruption, and organised crime represent ongoing challenges.

Economy

Ecuador’s economy is upper-middle income, diversified yet heavily dependent on petroleum exports, agriculture, and remittances. The adoption of the U.S. dollar (2001) stabilised inflation but constrained monetary flexibility.
Key economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $252.7 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $13,900
• Real GDP growth: -2.0%
• Inflation: 1.5%
• Unemployment: 4.8%
• Poverty rate: 26%

Economic composition:

• Agriculture: 9.5%
• Industry: 26.5%
• Services: 57.2%

Main exports: Crude oil, bananas, shrimp, fish, cocoa, and goldKey partners: United States (22%), China (21%), Panama (12%), Japan (3%), Peru (3%)Main imports: Refined petroleum, machinery, vehicles, plastics, and pharmaceuticals
Ecuador is the world’s largest banana exporter and a major supplier of shrimp and cocoa. The informal sector employs over 60% of the workforce, highlighting labour market vulnerabilities. Remittances account for approximately 5.2% of GDP, bolstering household incomes.

Environment and Energy

Ecuador’s ecological richness makes it one of the planet’s megadiverse nations. Approximately 50% of its territory is forested, though deforestation, oil extraction, and mining threaten ecosystems, particularly in the Amazon Basin.
Energy profile (2023):

• Electrification: 100%
• Installed capacity: 8.4 million kW
• Electricity generation: 75% hydroelectric, 23% fossil fuels, 2% renewables
• Oil production: 480,000 barrels/day
• Proven reserves: 8.27 billion barrels

The government aims to expand renewable energy and reduce emissions under its commitments to the Paris Agreement and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Defence and Security

The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador) comprise the Army, Navy, and Air Force, with approximately 40,000 active personnel (2025).

• Defence spending: 2.2% of GDP (2024)
• Roles: Border protection, disaster response, counter-narcotics, and public security

Rising narco-violence and organised crime have increased the military’s domestic role, particularly along the Colombian border and in coastal provinces. Ecuador cooperates closely with Colombia, Peru, and Chile on regional security and participates in UN peacekeeping missions.

Culture and Heritage

Ecuadorian culture reflects a synthesis of Indigenous, Spanish, and Afro-descendant influences. Folk music, festivals, and cuisine vary regionally — from Andean panpipes and highland textiles to Afro-Ecuadorian marimba rhythms on the Pacific coast.