Early Years of Congress

The early years of the Indian National Congress (INC), from its foundation in 1885 until the rise of assertive nationalism around 1905, represent a formative phase in India’s political awakening. During this period, the Congress functioned as a moderate, constitutional movement, seeking reforms within the British colonial framework rather than complete independence. It played a crucial role in political education, national unification, and the development of democratic consciousness among Indians.

Background and Circumstances of Formation

By the late 19th century, British rule in India had generated widespread discontent due to economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and administrative exclusion of Indians from positions of responsibility. At the same time, socio-political developments created conditions for the emergence of a national political organisation.
Major factors leading to the formation of the Congress included:

1. Rise of Political Consciousness: The spread of Western education and English language introduced liberal and democratic ideas of liberty, equality, and self-government. Educated Indians began to demand political rights and representation.
2. Economic Exploitation: British economic policies — including drain of wealth, destruction of indigenous industries, and heavy taxation — impoverished the Indian people, fostering a sense of collective resentment.
3. Role of Socio-Religious Reform Movements: Reform movements like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Ramakrishna Mission promoted rational thinking, national unity, and self-respect, laying the moral foundation for nationalism.
4. Indian Press and Literature: Newspapers such as The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika, and Kesari became platforms for nationalist debate and political mobilisation.
5. Unifying Influence of British Rule: The introduction of a uniform legal, administrative, and communication system under British rule inadvertently unified India politically and economically.
6. Formation of Political Associations: Provincial political organisations such as the Indian Association (Calcutta), Bombay Presidency Association, and Madras Mahajan Sabha (1870s–80s) demonstrated the growing desire for an all-India political body.
7. Role of A. O. Hume: The Indian National Congress was founded through the efforts of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, who sought to provide a “safety valve” for the rising political discontent among educated Indians by channelling it through peaceful, constitutional means.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (now Mumbai).

• Founder: Allan Octavian Hume.
• President (First Session): W. C. Bonnerjee.
• Number of Delegates: 72 delegates attended the first session representing all regions of India.
• Key Participants: Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, Dinshaw Wacha, Pherozeshah Mehta, S. Subramania Iyer, G. Subramania Iyer, and others.

Aim: To create a national platform where educated Indians could discuss their political, economic, and social problems and express their demands to the British government in a united voice.

Objectives of the Congress (As Envisaged in Early Years)

The early Congress, dominated by Moderate leaders, had clearly defined constitutional objectives:

1. Promotion of National Unity: To develop a sense of oneness among Indians transcending caste, religion, and provincial differences.
2. Political Training and Awareness: To educate and politically train Indians in the art of democratic self-government.
3. Representation of Indian Grievances: To provide an organised and constitutional channel for presenting Indian demands to the British authorities.
4. Incremental Reforms: To secure gradual and steady constitutional reforms such as greater Indian participation in government, freedom of speech and press, and expansion of legislative councils.
5. Strengthening British-Indian Relations: Many leaders believed that cooperation with Britain, rather than confrontation, would eventually lead to political concessions.

Leadership and Ideology: The Moderates

The early phase of the Congress (1885–1905) is known as the Moderate Phase because its leaders adopted a peaceful, constitutional, and loyalist approach toward the British government.
Prominent Moderate Leaders:

• Dadabhai Naoroji – “Grand Old Man of India,” author of Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
• Surendranath Banerjee – Founder of the Indian Association and advocate of civil rights.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale – Economist, reformer, and mentor of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Pherozeshah Mehta – Eminent lawyer and statesman from Bombay.
• Justice Ranade, Anand Charlu, and Dinshaw Wacha – Key figures in the early Congress.

Philosophy of the Moderates:

• Belief in British justice and liberalism.
• Advocacy of gradual reform rather than revolutionary change.
• Reliance on constitutional agitation through petitions, resolutions, speeches, and memoranda.
• Faith that public opinion in Britain could influence colonial policy in India.

Their motto was: “Prayer, Petition, and Protest.”

Major Demands of the Early Congress

The Moderates placed a range of demands before the British government:

1. Administrative Reforms:
   • Recruitment of Indians into higher civil services through competitive examinations held in India.
   • Separation of judicial and executive powers.
   • Reduction in military expenditure.
2. Constitutional Reforms:
   • Expansion of Legislative Councils and inclusion of elected Indian representatives.
   • More control over finances and policies by Indian members.
3. Economic Reforms:
   • Reduction in land revenue and salt tax.
   • Promotion of Indian industries and protective tariffs.
   • Opposition to economic exploitation and “drain of wealth.”
4. Civil Rights:
   • Freedom of press, speech, and association.
   • Equality before law irrespective of race.
5. Social Concerns:
   • Improvement of education and healthcare.
   • Promotion of social reforms such as widow remarriage and eradication of caste discrimination.

Important Sessions and Developments (1885–1905)

Achievements of the Early Congress

1. Political Unification of India: The Congress brought together Indians from different regions, languages, and communities onto a single political platform for the first time.
2. Political Education: It created a politically conscious middle class and familiarised people with democratic procedures and constitutional methods.
3. Economic Awareness: The Moderates exposed the exploitative nature of British economic policies — particularly the “Drain of Wealth” theory advanced by Dadabhai Naoroji.
4. Foundation for Future Nationalism: The constitutional agitation of the Moderates laid the groundwork for the assertive nationalism that emerged after 1905.
5. Expansion of Public Opinion: Through newspapers, petitions, and public meetings, they popularised political debate and civic participation.

Limitations of the Early Congress

1. Narrow Social Base: The Congress was dominated by English-educated, urban, upper- and middle-class elites with little direct connection to the masses.
2. Faith in British Justice: Excessive loyalty and reliance on British goodwill limited the effectiveness of their movement.
3. Slow Pace of Reforms: The moderate methods yielded few tangible results, leading to growing frustration among younger nationalists.
4. Lack of Radicalism: The movement lacked mass mobilisation, militant tactics, or assertive leadership to challenge colonial authority.

The Growth of Assertive Nationalism

By the early 20th century, new leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai began criticising the moderate approach. They argued for direct action, boycott, Swadeshi, and self-reliance as means to achieve Swaraj (self-rule).
The Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon acted as a catalyst for this transformation, marking the end of the moderate-dominated phase and the rise of the Extremist or Assertive Phase of Indian nationalism.