Early Cholas

The Early Cholas were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties of South India, alongside the Cheras and Pandyas. They ruled parts of Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh during the early historic period, approximately from the 6th century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Early Cholas are known for their flourishing maritime trade, well-organised administration, patronage of Tamil literature, and contributions to South Indian culture.
Although the later imperial Cholas (9th–13th centuries CE) became more famous for their vast empire, the Early Cholas laid the foundation for Tamil political traditions, economy, and cultural identity.

Geographical Extent and Capital

The Chola kingdom, known in ancient Tamil literature as Cholamandalam or Chola Nadu, was situated in the fertile Cauvery River valley of present-day Tamil Nadu.

• Capital Cities:
  • Uraiyur (near Tiruchirapalli) – the earliest known Chola capital.
  • Kaveripattinam (Puhar) – a prominent port city and later capital, important for overseas trade.

The region benefited from rich agricultural land watered by the Cauvery and its tributaries, making it a prosperous centre of early civilisation.

Sources of Information

Knowledge of the Early Cholas comes from a combination of literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources:

1. Sangam Literature:
   • The principal source of information about the Early Cholas.
   • Texts such as the Pattinappalai, Purananuru, and Pathitrupathu describe Chola kings, their conquests, and courtly life.
2. Ashokan Inscriptions (3rd century BCE):
   • Emperor Ashoka’s edicts mention the Cholas as one of the independent kingdoms of South India, along with the Cheras, Pandyas, and Satyaputras.
3. Foreign Accounts:
   • Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya, referred to the Cholas (Choloi) as a powerful people.
   • The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and Ptolemy’s Geography (2nd century CE) provide details of Chola ports like Kaveripattinam, indicating their role in maritime trade.
4. Archaeological Findings:
   • Excavations at Puhar (Kaveripattinam) and Uraiyur have unearthed pottery, coins, and trade artefacts linking the Cholas with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia.

Political History and Important Rulers

The Early Cholas were among the oldest ruling houses of Tamilakam and maintained their authority for several centuries. Their genealogy and deeds are partly legendary and partly historical.

1. Karikala Chola (c. 1st century CE)

• The most celebrated king of the Early Chola period.
• His name means “the man with charred legs”, referring to a youthful injury or imprisonment.
• He is praised in Sangam poems such as Pattinappalai and Porunararruppadai for his military prowess and administrative skill.

Major Achievements:

• Battle of Venni: Defeated the confederacy of Cheras and Pandyas, consolidating Chola supremacy in Tamilakam.
• Battle of Vahaipparandalai: Another important victory enhancing his power.
• Construction of the Kallanai (Grand Anicut):
  • Built across the Cauvery River near Tiruchirapalli for irrigation—one of the world’s oldest functional water-regulation structures.
• Maritime Trade: Developed Kaveripattinam (Puhar) as a major port for trade with Rome, Egypt, and Southeast Asia.
• Patron of Arts and Literature: His reign is associated with the prosperity reflected in Sangam poetry.

2. Ilamcetcenni (c. 2nd century BCE)

• An early and powerful ruler mentioned in Tamil literature.
• Known for his wars against northern kings and efforts to expand Chola influence.
• His son, Karikala Chola, succeeded him.

3. Nalankilli and Nedunkilli

• Contemporaries and rivals mentioned in the Purananuru.
• Fought a civil war for control over Uraiyur and Puhar, which weakened the dynasty temporarily.

4. Perunarkilli

• Mentioned as a ruler who conducted the Vedic sacrifice (Rajasuya Yagna), showing the Chola adaptation of northern Vedic traditions into Tamil culture.

Administration and Governance

The Early Cholas developed a well-structured administrative system that influenced later South Indian polities.

1. Monarchy:
   • The king was the supreme authority, assisted by ministers and nobles.
   • Royal power was hereditary, often passing from father to son.
2. Army and Warfare:
   • The Chola army included infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.
   • Wars were fought both for territorial expansion and control of trade routes.
3. Revenue and Economy:
   • Agriculture was the backbone of the economy, supported by advanced irrigation systems.
   • Taxes were collected in kind or cash.
4. Local Administration:
   • Villages were the basic administrative units.
   • Local assemblies managed public works, irrigation, and justice, reflecting a participatory political culture.

Economy and Trade

The Cholas presided over a prosperous economy driven by agriculture, craftsmanship, and maritime trade.

• Agriculture:
  • The fertile Cauvery Delta was the granary of South India.
  • The Kallanai dam ensured consistent irrigation and agricultural productivity.
• Trade:
  • Chola ports like Puhar (Kaveripattinam) were bustling centres of commerce.
  • Exports: Spices, pearls, ivory, precious stones, and textiles.
  • Imports: Gold, wine, horses, and luxury items from Rome and Southeast Asia.
  • Roman coins and amphorae found in Tamil Nadu confirm active Indo-Roman trade.
• Artisanship:
  • Skilled artisans produced fine textiles, jewellery, and metalware for domestic and foreign markets.

Society and Culture

The Early Chola period represents a vibrant phase of Tamil civilisation.

• Society:
  • Stratified but flexible social structure with warriors, cultivators, traders, and artisans.
  • Women participated in trade, literature, and religion, as reflected in Sangam poems.
• Language and Literature:
  • Flourishing of Sangam literature, which describes the social, political, and romantic life of the time.
  • Poets like Avvaiyar, Kapilar, and Paranar lived under Chola patronage.
• Religion:
  • Practised Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and local folk traditions.
  • Vedic rituals coexisted with Tamil devotional practices.
• Art and Architecture:
  • Early Chola temples were simple brick or stone structures.
  • Later, under the imperial Cholas, temple architecture reached monumental proportions.

Decline of the Early Cholas

By the 3rd century CE, the Early Chola power began to wane due to several factors:

• Internal dynastic conflicts weakened central authority.
• The Kalabhra invasion (around 4th century CE) disrupted traditional Tamil polities, including the Cholas.
• The Pallavas and Pandyas rose to prominence in subsequent centuries, overshadowing Chola influence.

The Chola dynasty re-emerged in the 9th century CE under Vijayalaya Chola, who founded the Imperial Chola Empire, marking the beginning of a new and glorious phase in South Indian history.

Legacy

The Early Cholas hold an enduring legacy as pioneers of Tamil polity and culture:

• They established the political and economic foundations later expanded by the Imperial Cholas.
• Their irrigation systems, such as the Kallanai, remain functional to this day.
• They nurtured Tamil literature and cultural identity, contributing to the richness of Indian civilisation.
• Their maritime and trading activities linked South India to the wider world long before the medieval age.