Dara Shikoh

Dara Shikoh (1615–1659) was a Mughal prince, scholar, and spiritual thinker, renowned for his intellectual curiosity, liberal religious outlook, and attempts to bridge Hindu and Islamic thought in 17th-century India. As the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal, he was once the designated heir to the Mughal throne. Dara’s life and ideas reflect one of the most fascinating episodes of cultural synthesis and ideological conflict in the history of the Mughal Empire.

Early Life and Education

Dara Shikoh was born on 20 March 1615 in Ajmer, Rajasthan. He was the first son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal, growing up in the splendour of the Mughal court. Trained in Persian, Arabic, and Islamic theology, he also studied philosophy, mysticism, and fine arts. From an early age, Dara showed a deep interest in Sufism — the mystical dimension of Islam — which profoundly shaped his worldview.
He was particularly influenced by Mian Mir, a revered Sufi saint of Lahore, and later became a disciple of Mulla Shah Badakhshi, a prominent Qadiri Sufi master. Dara’s spiritual training and Sufi associations guided his inclusive and introspective approach towards religion and philosophy.

Relationship with Shah Jahan and the Mughal Court

As the eldest son of Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh held the title of Shahzada-e-Buzurg (Crown Prince) and was regarded as the rightful successor. His father admired his intellect and character, entrusting him with various administrative and diplomatic responsibilities. Dara enjoyed significant influence in court, supported by the nobility and scholars who favoured his moderate policies.
However, his spiritual leanings and liberal views often contrasted sharply with orthodox Islamic factions within the empire. His brothers — particularly Aurangzeb — viewed his growing prominence and unorthodox ideas with suspicion.

Intellectual and Literary Contributions

Dara Shikoh was one of the most learned Mughal princes and an outstanding patron of philosophy, theology, and comparative religion. His writings reflect a profound engagement with both Islamic mysticism and Hindu philosophy.
His most notable works include:

• Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Mingling of the Two Oceans) – This seminal treatise explores the similarities between Sufi mysticism in Islam and Vedantic philosophy in Hinduism. It represents an early attempt at inter-religious dialogue, emphasising the unity of divine truth beyond sectarian boundaries.
• Sirr-i-Akbar (The Great Secret) – A Persian translation of 50 Upanishads from Sanskrit, undertaken to make Hindu philosophical thought accessible to Muslim scholars. Dara believed that the Upanishads contained esoteric wisdom consonant with the teachings of the Qur’an.
• Safinat-ul-Auliya and Sakinat-ul-Auliya – Biographical works on Sufi saints that reveal his deep respect for the spiritual heritage of Islam.
• Hasanat-ul-Arifin – A compilation of moral and mystical sayings, reflecting his understanding of spiritual ethics and human values.

Dara’s intellectual projects positioned him as a bridge between India’s diverse faith traditions. His works are still studied as early examples of comparative religious philosophy and Indo-Persian scholarship.

Political Rivalry and War of Succession

The later years of Shah Jahan’s reign were marked by deteriorating health and a fierce struggle for succession among his four sons — Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Murad Baksh, and Aurangzeb. Dara’s position as heir apparent was challenged by Aurangzeb, who combined political ambition with religious orthodoxy.
The civil war that ensued (1657–1659) became one of the most decisive episodes in Mughal history. Dara initially commanded imperial forces but suffered a series of defeats at Dharmat (1658) and Samugarh (1658) at the hands of Aurangzeb. After Shah Jahan was imprisoned by Aurangzeb at Agra, Dara was declared a rebel and fled towards Punjab and Sindh, seeking support.

Capture and Execution

Dara Shikoh was betrayed by one of his allies and captured near Sindh in 1659. He was brought to Delhi in chains and paraded through the streets as a symbol of Aurangzeb’s victory. After a mock trial on charges of heresy and apostasy — based largely on his liberal religious views — he was executed on 30 August 1659. His body was buried quietly in the Humedan of Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi.
Dara’s death marked not only the end of his personal aspirations but also the decline of a more tolerant and syncretic vision of Mughal governance. Aurangzeb’s subsequent rule took the empire in a more conservative and orthodox direction.

Religious and Philosophical Outlook

Dara Shikoh’s religious philosophy was rooted in spiritual universalism. He perceived all faiths as expressions of a single divine truth and sought to reconcile apparent contradictions between Islam and Hinduism. His translation of the Upanishads reflected his belief that these texts contained the “hidden knowledge” hinted at in the Qur’an.
He argued that Sufism and Vedanta shared the same metaphysical principles — the unity of existence, divine immanence, and the journey of the soul towards God. This syncretic approach earned him admiration from some scholars but condemnation from orthodox clerics who viewed his ideas as heretical.

Cultural Patronage and Artistic Legacy

Like his father Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh was a great patron of art, architecture, and literature. His court encouraged Persian and Sanskrit scholarship, painting, and calligraphy. Many manuscripts of his time were richly illustrated, blending Mughal and Hindu artistic traditions.
He commissioned translations and commentaries that contributed to the fusion of Indo-Persian intellectual culture. His efforts to create a dialogue between different religious and linguistic communities left a lasting imprint on Indian cultural history.