Polity & Governance

3.5 Per Cent Rule

The 3.5 per cent rule is a concept in political science stating that non-violent movements that mobilize at least 3.5% of a country’s population are almost always successful in achieving political change. The rule was popularized by Erica Chenoweth based on research of over 300 campaigns and protests between 1900 and 2006. It marks that visible protest participation is a critical threshold for regime change, though many more supporters may exist beyond active protesters. This rule applies mainly to non-violent campaigns, as violent uprisings tend to have lower success rates.

Why in news?

Referenced in a recent study on global protests, the 3.5 per cent rule explains why mass participation is crucial for successful non-violent movements like the People Power Revolution and others analyzed in the latest Nature article.

42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976)

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment is one of the most and controversial amendments in India’s history. Enacted during the Emergency period (1975-77), it shifted ‘education’ from the State list to the Concurrent list, allowing both the Centre and States to legislate on education. This amendment also added the words Socialist and Secular to the Preamble and extended the tenure of the Lok Sabha from five to six years. It was ratified by a majority of states without extensive debate. The amendment centralized power, leading to political backlash and partial reversals in subsequent amendments.

Why in news?

The 42nd amendment is referenced regarding the ongoing debate on whether education should remain a concurrent subject or be returned fully to the States amid controversies in national exams like NEET and UGC-NET.

All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968

The All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968 govern the behavior of IAS, IPS, and Indian Forest Service officers. Rule 3(1) mandates absolute integrity and devotion to duty. Rule 4(1) prohibits using official influence for family employment. In 2014, sub-rules were added emphasizing ethical standards, political neutrality, accountability, and transparency. Officers must make decisions solely in public interest, declare private interests, avoid financial obligations influencing duties, and not misuse their position for personal gain. Rule 11(1) allows gift acceptance from close relations with reporting obligations if the value exceeds Rs 25,000, last updated in 2015.

Why in news?

These rules are central to the investigation of IAS probationer Puja Khedkar’s alleged misconduct and misuse of privileges during her probation period.

Amicus Curiae

An amicus curiae is a person or organization appointed by a court to assist in a case by offering expertise or impartial advice. The term means “friend of the court” in Latin. This role is distinct from a regular party, as the amicus does not represent either side but provides information that may aid judicial decision-making. In India, amicus curiae appointments are common in complex or sensitive cases. They can be senior advocates, experts, or NGOs. Their submissions are considered by the court but are not binding. The concept originated in English common law and is widely used globally.

Why in news?

Senior advocate Vijay Hansaria was appointed amicus curiae by the Supreme Court to assess legal representation for over 1.5 lakh convicts in Indian prisons.

Article 131 of the Constitution of India

Article 131 grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to adjudicate disputes between the Union and one or more States. It excludes other courts from hearing these disputes. The Article is limited to cases involving the existence or extent of a legal right between the parties. Article 131’s jurisdiction is subject to other constitutional provisions, notably Article 262, which bars the Supreme Court from hearing inter-State river disputes. The term Government of India under Article 131 is distinct from the broader definition of State in Articles 12 and 36, limiting which entities qualify under this Article.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court clarified the scope of Article 131 in a case involving the CBI’s authority and the dispute between West Bengal and the Union Government regarding FIR registrations.

Article 153 of the Constitution of India

Article 153 mandates that each state of India shall have a Governor. However, a 1956 constitutional amendment allows one person to be appointed Governor for multiple states simultaneously. The Governor acts as the constitutional head of the state and represents the Centre. This article forms the legal basis for the existence and appointment of Governors in India. The provision for a single Governor for multiple states is rarely used but has been applied in some cases for administrative convenience. The Governor’s role is largely ceremonial but includes discretionary powers under specific circumstances defined by the Constitution.

Why in news?

Recent appointments of Governors to multiple states, including Assam’s Governor getting additional charge of Manipur, show the application of Article 153’s provision for one Governor overseeing more than one state.

Article 16(3) of the Constitution of India

Article 16(3) allows the Parliament to prescribe residential requirements for employment or appointment to a public office within a State or Union Territory. However, this power is exclusive to Parliament, and State legislatures cannot enact laws imposing such residency conditions. This article aims to balance equality of opportunity in public employment with regional preferences but does not extend to private sector jobs. It is often cited in legal debates about the constitutionality of local employment reservation laws enacted by states.

Why in news?

The article is central to constitutional challenges against state laws like Karnataka’s and Haryana’s local employment reservation bills, which are argued to exceed state legislative powers.

Article 280 Sub-clauses 280(3)(bb) and (c)

Article 280 of the Constitution of India establishes the Finance Commission, which recommends the distribution of financial resources between the Union and States. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments introduced sub-clauses 280(3)(bb) and 280(3)(c), mandating the Finance Commission to suggest measures to augment State consolidated funds specifically for panchayats and municipalities. These sub-clauses institutionalize fiscal support for local bodies, ensuring decentralized financial empowerment. Their inclusion reflects the constitutional intent to strengthen grassroots governance by improving fiscal devolution to rural and urban local governments, a key step towards cooperative federalism in India.

Why in news?

The 16th Finance Commission is working under these provisions to recommend financial devolution measures aimed at enhancing funds for local bodies, in line with the constitutional mandate.

Article 361 of the Constitution of India

Article 361 provides constitutional immunity to the President and Governors of states in India, shielding them from criminal prosecution and judicial scrutiny for acts done in their official capacity. It bars criminal proceedings and any process of arrest or imprisonment during their tenure. The immunity is rooted in the legal maxim rex non potest peccare (“the king can do no wrong”). The article was adopted without extensive debate during the Constituent Assembly in 1949. Judicial interpretations have clarified when criminal proceedings are considered “instituted” and when immunity lapses, but the scope remains subject to ongoing legal scrutiny.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court of India agreed to hear a plea challenging the extent of immunity under Article 361, following sexual harassment allegations against West Bengal Governor C V Ananda Bose.

Article 371 of the Constitution of India

Article 371 grants special provisions to certain states in India, allowing them relaxed rules for recruitment and governance to address unique regional, cultural, or economic needs. It covers states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, among others. These provisions include safeguards for local customs, land rights, and employment preferences. Article 371 was designed to maintain national unity while respecting regional diversity. It is distinct from other constitutional articles as it permits exceptions to uniform laws, especially in public employment and administration. The article is frequently cited in debates on domicile and reservation policies.

Why in news?

Article 371 is relevant as it provides constitutional backing for some states to implement relaxed recruitment rules, a key point in the ongoing debate about domicile-based job reservations in Karnataka and other states.

Article 8 of the French Constitution

Article 8 outlines the president’s power to appoint the prime minister but does not specify criteria for this appointment. It allows the president discretion, typically offering the role to the leader of the majority parliamentary group. This flexibility means the president can appoint a prime minister from an opposition party or a non-affiliated individual if no clear majority exists. Historically, this has led to periods of “cohabitation,” where the president and prime minister come from opposing parties. The article thus plays a central role in France’s semi-presidential system, balancing executive power between president and parliament.

Why in news?

Article 8 is very important in the current French parliamentary election impasse, as it governs President Macron’s appointment of a prime minister amid uncertain majority outcomes.

Articles 14 and 16 of the Constitution of India

Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws within India, prohibiting arbitrary discrimination. Article 16 ensures equality of opportunity in public employment, preventing discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, or residence. Together, these articles protect citizens from unfair treatment by the state, including in government job appointments. The Supreme Court has interpreted these provisions to prohibit denial of employment solely due to political affiliations unless they undermine service integrity or efficiency. These articles form the constitutional basis for the recent DoPT order.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court’s interpretation of Articles 14 and 16 underpinned its verdict protecting RSS-affiliated individuals from employment discrimination, leading to the DoPT’s recent order lifting restrictions.

Bharatiya Bhasha Samiti

The Bharatiya Bhasha Samiti is a high-powered committee under the Ministry of Education tasked with promoting Indian languages in education. It collaborates with UGC and other institutions for language development projects like ASMITA. The Samiti focuses on policy formulation, language standardization, and encouraging academic writing and translation in multiple Indian languages. It also partners with the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) for initiatives like the Bahubhasha Shabdakosh. The Samiti’s role is crucial in preserving linguistic heritage and supporting multilingual education frameworks in India.

Why in news?

It is a key collaborator in the ASMITA project and the Bahubhasha Shabdakosh initiative, launched to enhance Indian language academic resources and lexical databases.

Bhil Pradesh

The demand for Bhil Pradesh is for a separate tribal state comprising parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It was first proposed by Bhil social reformer Govind Guru in 1913, following the Mangarh massacre where hundreds of Bhil tribals were killed by British forces. The Bhil community wants to unite tribal-majority districts that were divided post-Independence. The demand has been raised repeatedly by various tribal leaders and parties, including the Bharatiya Tribal Party (BTP) and Bharat Adivasi Party (BAP). The proposed state would cover 49 districts with tribal population.

Why in news?

The Bhil tribe recently held a large rally in Rajasthan’s Mangarh Dham to renew their demand for Bhil Pradesh. The delegation plans to meet the President and Prime Minister with this proposal.

Burnt Memory in EVMs

The burnt memory refers to the firmware permanently programmed into the microcontroller of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs). This memory stores the election data and vote counts. It is “burnt” because it is fused during manufacturing and cannot be altered without specialized equipment. Verification of burnt memory involves checking the integrity of this firmware to detect any tampering or unauthorized modifications. The process uses a vast number of test inputs to compare expected and actual outputs. This method ensures the security and reliability of EVMs in elections. The manufacturers involved are Bharat Electronics Ltd (BEL) and Electronics Corporation of India Ltd (ECIL).

Why in news?

The Supreme Court allowed losing candidates to seek verification of burnt memory in EVMs and VVPATs for up to 5% of machines after the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, following challenges to the EVM system’s integrity.

Cantonment Boards

Cantonment Boards are statutory bodies established under the Cantonments Act of 2006 to administer municipal functions in military cantonments across India. They manage civic amenities like sanitation, water supply, and education within cantonment limits. There are 62 notified cantonments in India, covering about 1.61 lakh acres. These boards are unique because they operate under the Ministry of Defence but perform municipal functions similar to local governments. They consist of a mix of elected civilian members and nominated military officials. Cantonment Boards also maintain defense infrastructure and residential areas for armed forces personnel and their families.

Why in news?

The government is transferring civilian areas in 13 cantonments to local municipalities, separating civil administration from military control to improve civic governance and access to welfare schemes.

Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)

The Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was established in 1985 under the Administrative Tribunals Act to adjudicate disputes related to recruitment and service conditions of public servants in India. It operates independently of regular courts, providing speedy resolution of service-related grievances for government employees. CAT decisions can be appealed in High Courts or the Supreme Court. In the DSSSB case, CAT set aside the Deputy CM’s cancellation order in 2017, emphasizing that only proven guilty candidates should be penalized, not the entire group. This tribunal plays important role in balancing administrative efficiency and employee rights in government service disputes.

Why in news?

The CAT’s 2017 ruling on the DSSSB recruitment irregularities is a precedent under consideration in the Supreme Court’s handling of the NEET-UG 2024 exam paper leak petitions.

Cohabitation in French Politics

Cohabitation occurs when the French president and prime minister come from opposing political parties, requiring power-sharing. It has happened three times since the Fifth Republic’s founding in 1958 – 1986-1988, 1993-1995, and 1997-2002. Cohabitation forces presidents to compromise on domestic policies while retaining control over foreign affairs and defense. It tests the semi-presidential system’s flexibility and often leads to political gridlock or compromise. Cohabitation is rare globally, making France’s system distinctive in balancing executive authority amid divided government.

Why in news?

Cohabitation could return if the RN wins the prime ministership but Macron remains president, creating a divided executive.

Complementarity Assessment Framework (COMPASS)

The Complementarity Assessment Framework (COMPASS) is a points-based system introduced by Singapore to regulate Employment Pass (EP) visa renewals. Applicants must score at least 40 points based on criteria including salary, educational qualifications, and diversity contributions. The framework aims to balance local workforce needs with foreign talent inflow. It awards 20 points if less than 5% of a company’s PMET (professionals, managers, executives, and technicians) employees share the candidate’s nationality, promoting workplace diversity. The system is set to be implemented from September 1, 2024, affecting visa renewals and new applications.

Why in news?

COMPASS was introduced in Singapore’s updated visa rules effective September 2024, affecting skilled worker visas and sparking concerns from the Indian IT sector about talent shortages and fairness in nationality-based point allocation.

Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court of India

A Constitution bench in the Supreme Court of India comprises at least five judges and is formed to decide questions regarding the Constitution. It is empowered to interpret constitutional provisions and resolve disputes involving constitutional validity. Constitution benches are convened for landmark cases involving fundamental rights, separation of powers, and constitutional amendments. The Chief Justice of India has the authority to constitute such benches. These benches ensure uniformity and authoritative interpretation of constitutional law, preventing conflicting judgments by smaller benches.

Why in news?

The Chief Justice of India is considering setting up a Constitution bench to hear pleas challenging the validity of laws passed as money bills, including the Aadhaar Act.

Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS)

The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS) is a nationwide integrated system for enhancing policing through digital technology. Launched in 2009, it connects police stations across India to a centralized database for real-time crime data sharing. The system supports registration of FIRs, investigation tracking, and criminal history records. In 2024, 23 functional upgrades were made to improve compatibility with new legal frameworks, including automated FIR registration. CCTNS plays a key role in modernizing law enforcement and improving transparency and efficiency in crime management. It includes mobile and web applications for easier access.

Why in news?

CCTNS was upgraded with 23 functional modifications to support the implementation of India’s new criminal laws effective July 1, 2024.

Critical Mineral Mission

The Critical Mineral Mission is an initiative by the Government of India aimed at boosting the domestic production, recycling, and overseas acquisition of critical minerals. It focuses on technology development, workforce skill enhancement, and establishing an extended producer responsibility framework. The mission will have autonomy in decision-making and a dedicated budget to support activities like setting up beneficiation plants and overseas asset acquisitions. This is the first major mention of mining initiatives in the Indian budget speech in nearly a decade. The mission targets minerals vital for sectors such as nuclear energy, renewable energy, space, defense, and high-tech electronics.

Why in news?

Announced in July 2024 during the Indian budget speech by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, the Critical Mineral Mission aims to strengthen India’s supply chain for strategic minerals by promoting domestic production and processing.

Donkey Route

The Donkey Route is a clandestine migration path used primarily by Indian migrants aiming to enter the U.S. illegally. Migrants travel on tourist visas to the United Arab Emirates, then transit through multiple Latin American countries such as Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Guatemala before reaching the U.S.-Mexico border. Originating in Punjab, this route has been active for over a decade. It involves complex human trafficking networks exploiting visa loopholes and multiple border crossings. In 2023, nearly 96,917 Indians were caught or expelled attempting this journey, rise from 30,662 in 2021, denoting its growing use.

Why in news?

The route gained attention due to a record number of Indians caught attempting illegal entry into the U.S., spotlighting migration challenges and human trafficking linked to this passage.

Entry 50 of List II of the Constitution of India

Entry 50 in List II (State List) of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India deals with “Taxes on lands and buildings.” This entry grants states the power to impose taxes on land, including mineral-bearing land. The Supreme Court ruling clarified that Parliament cannot tax mineral rights under this entry, affirming state legislative competence in this area. The distinction between land and mineral rights has been a subject of legal debate, with Entry 50 serving as a constitutional basis for states to levy taxes on mining activities and related land use.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruled that Entry 50 empowers states to tax minerals, overturning previous judgments that classified mineral royalties as a central tax, impacting mining taxation authority across India.

Entry 54 of List 1 of the Constitution

Entry 54 of List 1 in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India grants the Union Government exclusive power to legislate on taxes on mineral rights. This entry is part of the Union List, which enumerates subjects under the Parliament’s jurisdiction. It specifically pertains to the taxation of rights to mine minerals, not the minerals themselves. The distinction between mineral rights and mineral taxation has been a subject of legal interpretation. The Supreme Court’s recent ruling clarified that while the Union can tax mineral rights, states have the authority to tax mining activities under a different constitutional entry.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruled against the Centre’s claim under Entry 54, affirming states’ rights to tax mining, resolving a long-standing dispute over federal taxation powers on minerals.

Excipients

Excipients are inactive substances included in pharmaceutical products alongside the active ingredients. They serve to stabilize the drug, ensure proper dosage delivery, and enhance bioavailability. Common excipients include binders, fillers, preservatives, and flavoring agents. While generally considered safe, some excipients like parabens can cause hypersensitivity reactions in certain individuals. Excipients are not intended to have therapeutic effects but are crucial for the drug’s efficacy and shelf life. Their detailed listing on drug labels is rare globally and often omitted, despite growing calls for transparency to prevent adverse effects.

Why in news?

India’s Health Ministry is considering mandatory labeling of excipients on drug packaging to help identify ingredients causing adverse reactions, aiming to increase transparency in pharmaceutical products.

Expediency Council

The Expediency Council is a powerful advisory body in Iran, established in 1988 to resolve disputes between the Parliament and the Guardian Council. It also advises the Supreme Leader on policy matters. Members include senior clerics, politicians, and military figures, often close to the Supreme Leader. The council can influence legislation and national strategy, acting as a mediator and policymaker. Saeed Jalili, a 2024 presidential candidate, is a member, indicating his high status within the political establishment. The Expediency Council operates behind the scenes but has impact on Iran’s political and security decisions.

Why in news?

Jalili’s membership signals his close ties to the Supreme Leader and conservative factions during the ongoing presidential election.

Foreigners Tribunals (FTs)

The Foreigners Tribunals (FTs) are quasi-judicial bodies established under the Foreigners (Tribunals) Order of 1964 and Section 3 of the Foreigners’ Act, 1946. They function exclusively in Assam to determine whether a person is a foreigner or an Indian citizen. Each FT is headed by a member with judicial experience, such as judges or advocates. Initially, 11 tribunals were set up before the Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act was scrapped in 2005. As of 2021, 300 FTs were sanctioned, but only 100 are currently operational. FTs have civil court powers like summoning witnesses and requiring documents.

Why in news?

The Assam government recently instructed its Border police not to forward cases of non-Muslims who entered India illegally before 2014 to FTs, following the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2019 provisions.

Indira Sawhney Judgement

The Indira Sawhney judgement (1992) is a landmark Supreme Court ruling that upheld the constitutionality of reservations for backward classes but introduced the creamy layer concept to exclude the socially advanced among OBCs. It capped reservations at 50%, mandated periodic review of backwardness criteria, and emphasized excluding those with income or landholdings. The judgement balanced affirmative action with merit and equality principles. It remains a foundational legal precedent for reservation policies across India and guides state governments in framing exclusion criteria for creamy layer identification.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court’s principles from the Indira Sawhney judgement are referenced in Haryana’s updated creamy layer criteria for backward class reservations.

Irrigation Court

The irrigation court is a specialized judicial body proposed under the Karnataka Irrigation (Amendment) Bill, 2024. It is empowered to adjudicate disputes related to water use and theft involving the government and individuals. The court is presided over by an irrigation officer of at least the rank of superintending engineer, who can summon involved parties. The court must dispose of cases, including appeals, within six months. It also coordinates with the Revenue Department to record water dues in the RTC (Record of Rights, Tenancy, and Crops).

Why in news?

The irrigation court is part of new legal mechanisms introduced to enforce water use regulations and penalties under the recently tabled Karnataka Irrigation (Amendment) Bill, 2024.

Justice A K Rajan Committee

Retired Madras High Court Justice A K Rajan headed a committee formed by the Tamil Nadu government in 2021 to study the impact of NEET-based medical admissions. The committee’s report brought into light NEET’s anti-poor and anti-social justice effects based on extensive data and public feedback. It recommended abolishing NEET and suggested using higher secondary examination marks as the sole criterion for medical admissions. The report urged the state government to take immediate legal or legislative action to eliminate NEET as a qualifying exam for medical courses. The committee’s findings influenced state-level opposition to NEET.

Why in news?

The committee’s report was cited in 2024 as Tamil Nadu pushed to scrap NEET, recommending alternative admission criteria to reduce student suicides and address alleged systemic unfairness.

Justice BV Nagarathna

Justice BV Nagarathna is the first woman judge from Karnataka appointed to the Supreme Court of India. Known for her progressive judgments and emphasis on federal balance, she often voices independent opinions. In a recent 9-judge Supreme Court bench ruling on mining taxation, she was the sole dissenter, arguing that royalty payments should be classified as taxes. She warned that allowing states to tax minerals could disrupt uniformity and create inter-state competition, potentially weakening the federal structure. Her dissent marks ongoing debates on federalism and resource governance in India’s constitutional law.

Why in news?

Justice Nagarathna dissented in the Supreme Court ruling, opposing states’ power to tax minerals, citing concerns about national uniformity and federal system erosion.

Mineral Area Development Authority

The Mineral Area Development Authority (MADA) is a statutory body established to oversee the development and regulation of mineral-rich areas in India. It coordinates mining activities, ensuring sustainable development and environmental protection. MADA typically works under state governments and manages funds collected from mining royalties for local infrastructure and welfare schemes. It often focuses on rehabilitation of mining-affected communities and land reclamation. MADA’s role gained prominence due to disputes over mining royalties and taxes, as seen in the recent Supreme Court case involving the Steel Authority of India. It ensures that mining benefits reach the local population and environment is safeguarded.

Why in news?

MADA was central in the Supreme Court case Mineral Area Development Authority v M/S Steel Authority of India, which clarified states’ powers to tax mining activities and royalties under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.

National Logistics Policy

India’s National Logistics Policy, introduced in 2022, aims to create a unified, efficient logistics ecosystem by harmonizing regulations across states and sectors. It seeks to reduce logistics costs, improve service quality, and promote multimodal transport. The policy emphasizes digitization, skill development, and infrastructure investments. It addresses bottlenecks such as fragmented services and regulatory complexity. By improving logistics efficiency, the policy supports manufacturing growth and export competitiveness. It also promotes sustainability by encouraging green logistics practices. The policy is a key element in India’s efforts to improve its Logistics Performance Index ranking and integrate more effectively into global supply chains.

Why in news?

The National Logistics Policy is cited as a critical framework underpinning supply chain improvements in India’s Budget 2024 strategy.

National Population Register (NPR)

The National Population Register (NPR) is a database of usual residents of India, maintained by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. It collects demographic and biometric data, including Aadhaar and mobile numbers during self-enumeration. NPR was initially linked to the census but now functions independently for identity verification and planning. The NPR is mandatory for citizens who choose self-enumeration in the census. It includes detailed questions on housing, assets, and social status, such as caste and household headship. NPR data supports various government schemes and security measures. It has faced privacy and citizenship controversies since its inception.

Why in news?

The NPR is in the spotlight as the 2021 census and NPR update have been delayed, with a reduced budget allocation in 2024, and the government preparing for the first digital census with self-enumeration via NPR.

National Testing Agency (NTA)

The National Testing Agency (NTA) was established in 2017 by the Government of India to conduct entrance examinations for higher educational institutions in a transparent, efficient, and standardized manner. It conducts exams like JEE Main, UGC-NET, and NEET. The NTA aims to reduce human intervention and uses computer-based testing (CBT) to enhance exam integrity. It partners with technology firms to facilitate large-scale digital exams. Despite its mandate, NTA has faced criticism for technical glitches and logistical issues but is credited with digitizing India’s competitive exam landscape. It operates under the Ministry of Education.

Why in news?

NTA announced new dates for NCET, UGC-NET, and CSIR-UGC-NET exams after paper leak investigations revealed security breaches during question paper transportation.

NIDAAN Portal

NIDAAN is a newly launched portal designed to track and manage narcotics offenders in India. It supports law enforcement by maintaining a centralized database of individuals involved in drug-related crimes, facilitating better monitoring and rehabilitation efforts. The portal complements other anti-narcotics initiatives by providing actionable data to authorities and improving coordination among agencies. Its implementation is part of the broader strategy under the Ministry of Home Affairs to combat drug trafficking and abuse through technology-driven solutions.

Why in news?

NIDAAN portal was introduced in 2024 as part of the Government of India’s three-point strategy to achieve a drug-free India by 2047, alongside MANAS and other anti-narcotics measures.

Private Member Bills in India

Private Member Bills are legislative proposals introduced by MPs who are not ministers. They account for a small fraction of bills passed in India’s Parliament but often show social issues or reforms. MPs can introduce bills on diverse subjects, such as reservation policies, welfare schemes, or regulatory frameworks. Although most Private Member Bills do not become law, they stimulate debate and influence government legislation. Over 31 Private Member Bills were introduced in the Lok Sabha in July 2024, including those on reservation for youth and transgender persons, residential schools for Scheduled Castes/Tribes, and rabies control. These bills reflect MPs’ efforts to address varied public concerns.

Why in news?

The text reports on several Private Member Bills introduced in July 2024, including those by Shashi Tharoor, Chandrashekhar Azad, and others, denoting ongoing parliamentary activity on social and regulatory issues.

Rajagopal vs. State of Tamil Nadu (1994)

Rajagopal vs. State of Tamil Nadu is a 1994 Supreme Court case that established the right to be let alone as part of the right to privacy in India. The court held that individuals have the right to safeguard their private life, family, and personal matters from unauthorized publication. However, it clarified that once information becomes part of public records, such as court judgments, privacy rights no longer apply, and such information can be lawfully published. This case is a foundational precedent in Indian privacy law, balancing individual privacy against freedom of the press and public interest.

Why in news?

The case is cited in ongoing debates on the right to be forgotten and the limits of privacy concerning public judicial records.

Rule 303 of the Lok Sabha

Rule 303 of the Lok Sabha authorizes the Speaker to remove words, phrases, or expressions found in dissent notes submitted by Members of Parliament (MPs) to Committee reports if these are deemed unparliamentary or otherwise inappropriate. This rule applies beyond oral speeches to written dissent notes, enabling the Speaker to maintain parliamentary standards in committee documentation. It marks the Speaker’s broad authority in regulating language within all parliamentary records, not just debates. This rule is less known compared to expungement of speeches but crucial for controlling the tone of parliamentary committee reports.

Why in news?

Rule 303 was referenced in discussions about the scope of expungement powers following the removal of remarks from Rahul Gandhi’s parliamentary speech.

Rule 380 of the Lok Sabha

Rule 380 of the Lok Sabha governs the expungement of unparliamentary, defamatory, indecent, or undignified remarks made during debates. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha holds discretionary power to order such remarks to be removed from official records. This rule ensures the preservation of decorum and dignity in parliamentary proceedings. Once expunged, the remarks are omitted from the official transcript and cannot be cited in future references. This mechanism is unique to Indian parliamentary procedure and is aimed at maintaining respectful discourse within the legislative house.

Why in news?

Rule 380 was invoked when Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla expunged parts of Rahul Gandhi’s speech on July 1, 2024, citing unparliamentary language.

Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (SPT Act)

The Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act, 1876, was enacted by the British colonial government following the Santhal Hul revolt. It prohibits the transfer or sale of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis, ensuring that land ownership remains within the Santhal community. The Act allows land to be inherited but not alienated, safeguarding tribal land rights and self-governance. This law was one of the earliest legal protections for indigenous land rights in India and remains in protecting Adivasi lands from encroachment and exploitation.

Why in news?

The Act is brought into light in discussions on land rights and tribal protections, especially in Jharkhand and surrounding regions, where Adivasi land ownership remains a critical issue.

Shura Council

The Shura Council is the lower house of Oman’s bicameral legislature, established in 1991. It consists of 84 members, elected by Omani citizens every four years. The council’s role includes discussing and approving draft laws, providing recommendations, and representing public opinion. Unlike many advisory bodies in the Gulf, the Shura Council has legislative powers but cannot initiate laws independently; it reviews laws proposed by the government. The council also oversees government performance and public policies. Its members represent various regions, ensuring diverse local interests are voiced in the national legislative process.

Why in news?

The Shura Council recently passed Oman’s draft personal income tax legislation to the State Council, marking a key step towards parliamentary approval of the first personal income tax in the GCC.

Swaran Singh Committee

The Swaran Singh Committee was formed in 1975 by the Government of India during the Emergency to recommend constitutional amendments. Chaired by Swaran Singh, a senior Congress leader and Union Minister, the committee proposed shifting education from the State list to the Concurrent list to facilitate uniform national policies. The committee’s report laid the groundwork for the 42nd Constitutional Amendment. It also recommended other changes to centralize governance. The committee’s recommendations were accepted with minimal opposition, despite concerns about federal autonomy. The committee’s work remains a very important moment in India’s constitutional and educational policy history.

Why in news?

The committee’s role is brought into light as the origin of the constitutional change that centralized education policy, relevant to current discussions on education governance following exam controversies.

Toshkhana Case

The Toshkhana case refers to a legal investigation involving the alleged misuse of gifts and valuables received by public officials in Pakistan. Toshkhana, meaning “treasury,” is a government department that stores gifts received by officials from foreign dignitaries. The case centers on accusations that Imran Khan improperly retained or sold gifts without declaring them or depositing their value into the state treasury, violating Pakistani laws. The case has been part of Khan’s legal challenges since his arrest in August 2023. Toshkhana regulations aim to ensure transparency and accountability concerning diplomatic gifts.

Why in news?

Imran Khan faces the Toshkhana case among other legal issues while running for the Chancellor post at Oxford University.

UMANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance)

UMANG is an Government of India mobile app launched in 2017 to provide citizens access to over 1200 government services from central, state, and local bodies on a single platform. It supports multiple languages and integrates services like EPFO, income tax filing, and utility payments. UMANG enables grievance registration, status tracking, and digital payments. It is designed to simplify citizen interaction with government schemes, promoting digital governance. The app supports real-time updates and uses secure authentication methods, including Aadhaar and mobile OTPs.

Why in news?

The new EPFO contact centre will integrate grievance handling across multiple platforms, including UMANG, to provide seamless multi-channel complaint registration and tracking.

Vertical and Horizontal Devolution

Vertical Devolution refers to the distribution of the Centre’s net tax revenues between the Central government and all States collectively. Horizontal Devolution is the subsequent distribution of the States’ share among individual States. Horizontal devolution factors include population, fertility rate, income level, and geography. Vertical devolution lacks a fixed formula and varies based on Finance Commission recommendations. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Commissions recommended vertical shares of 32%, 42%, and 41% respectively to States. These mechanisms determine the fiscal autonomy and resource availability at the State level.

Why in news?

The 16th Finance Commission is tasked with recommending new vertical and horizontal devolution formulas to address changing fiscal needs and demands from States.

Victorian Doctrine – “The King can do no wrong”

This doctrine is a legal principle from English common law stating that the monarch is immune from civil or criminal liability. It reflects the sovereign’s absolute authority and was used historically to protect the Crown from lawsuits or prosecution. The phrase implies that the monarch’s actions cannot be questioned in courts, a concept that influenced colonial and post-colonial legal systems, including India’s Article 361 immunity clauses. This doctrine is often criticized for enabling unchecked power but remains a foundational principle in constitutional monarchies and some republics’ immunity laws.

Why in news?

The petitioner argued that the Governor’s immunity under Article 361 is based on this Victorian doctrine, which is being challenged for violating constitutional morality and fairness.

Zero FIR

Zero FIR is a legal provision allowing any police station in India to register a First Information Report (FIR) regardless of the jurisdiction where the crime occurred. This eliminates delays and jurisdictional issues in initiating legal proceedings. It ensures faster police response and prevents denial of complaint registration. Zero FIR is part of the new criminal law reforms effective 1 July 2024 and is designed to improve access to justice, especially for victims of serious crimes. It complements other reforms like online complaint filing and electronic summons to reduce bureaucratic hurdles in the criminal justice process.

Why in news?

Zero FIR was introduced as part of India’s new criminal laws effective from 1 July 2024, aiming to expedite complaint registration and improve police responsiveness.

Economy & Banking/Finance

Agri Fund for Startups and Rural Enterprises (AgriSURE)

AgriSURE is a newly proposed Rs 750 crore Category-II alternative investment fund (AIF) aimed at supporting agripreneurs in India. It provides both equity and debt financing to startups in agriculture and allied sectors. The fund is sector-agnostic, focusing on high-risk, high-impact activities in the agriculture value chain. It targets innovation and sustainability, particularly benefiting small and marginal farmers. AgriSURE enables debt alternative investment funds and direct equity investments, encouraging a collaborative ecosystem between public and private sectors. The fund is managed under the Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare with NABARD’s involvement.

Why in news?

AgriSURE was announced at a pre-launch stakeholder meeting at NABARD Headquarters, Mumbai, aimed at boosting financing and innovation in India’s agricultural sector.

Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)

The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) was launched in 2020 to reduce post-harvest losses and promote agricultural infrastructure development in India. It aims to provide Rs 1 lakh crore through banks and financial institutions by 2025-26. The fund supports projects like cold storage, warehouses, and supply chain improvements. As of June 2024, Rs 43,000 crore has been approved for 67,871 projects, mobilizing Rs 72,000 crore in investments. However, less than 50% of the target amount has been allocated so far. Funds have sometimes been diverted to other schemes such as the Prime Minister’s Gram Sadak Yojana.

Why in news?

The Union Budget 2024 allocated Rs 600 crore for agricultural infrastructure, the same as the previous year, raising concerns over insufficient funding and diversion of AIF funds affecting post-harvest loss reduction efforts.

Angel Tax

Angel tax is an income tax levied on funding raised by unlisted companies or startups when their valuation exceeds the company’s fair market value. Introduced in the 2012 Union Budget by Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee, it aimed to curb fund laundering. Under Section 56(2) VII B of the Income Tax Act, premiums received from share sales to foreign investors are taxed as income from other sources. In 2018, startups were exempted if funding remained under Rs 10 crore, subject to approval by an inter-ministerial board and a merchant banker’s valuation certificate. The tax mainly impacts angel investors.

Why in news?

The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) has recommended the removal of the angel tax in the 2024 Union Budget to boost startup funding and ease capital formation.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is a multilateral development bank established in 2016, headquartered in Beijing, China. It focuses on infrastructure investments across Asia and beyond, aiming to improve social and economic outcomes. AIIB has 113 approved members worldwide as of 2024, including non-Asian countries. It operates with a focus on sustainable development, clean energy, and connectivity projects. AIIB provides loans, equity investments, and guarantees, often co-financing with other institutions like the Asian Development Bank. The bank uses a lean organizational structure and emphasizes environmental and social standards in its financing processes.

Why in news?

AIIB is providing Rs 7.3 billion as part of a Rs 14.6 billion loan for a 400 MW solar power plant in Gujarat, alongside ADB.

Basis Point

A basis point is a unit of measure used in finance to describe the percentage change in value or rate of a financial instrument. One basis point equals 0.01% or 1/100th of a percent. It is commonly used to denote changes in interest rates, bond yields, and other percentages in finance. For example, a rise from 5.00% to 5.10% is a 10 basis point increase. The term originated from the need to avoid ambiguity in percentage changes, especially in financial markets where small differences can have impacts. It is abbreviated as “bps.”

Why in news?

The fiscal deficit target was lowered by 66 basis points from the previous year, denoting precise financial adjustments in the government budget announcement for FY25.

Benapole Land Port

Benapole is the largest land port in Bangladesh, situated in the Jessore district near the India-Bangladesh border. It is the counterpart to India’s Petrapole port and a major gateway for imports and exports between the two countries. Benapole handles volume of cargo trucks daily, facilitating trade in goods like food products, textiles, and industrial materials. The port has customs facilities and border security to regulate traffic and ensure smooth operations. It is vital for bilateral trade and economic cooperation between India and Bangladesh.

Why in news?

Trade disruption at Benapole due to student protests and government-declared holidays in Bangladesh has led to a standstill in cargo movement, affecting Indo-Bangladesh land trade.

C-heavy Molasses

C-heavy molasses is a dense, dark brown byproduct of sugar production, rich in sucrose but less economically viable for crystallization into sugar. It was the primary feedstock for ethanol production in India until 2017-18. Unlike B-heavy molasses, C-heavy molasses contains more residual sugars that are difficult to process into sugar crystals. Its use for ethanol production helped sugar mills monetize waste products. The ethanol derived from C-heavy molasses is typically cheaper but yields lower ethanol volumes compared to grains. It remains feedstock, especially during the sugarcane crushing season.

Why in news?

C-heavy molasses is mentioned as a traditional ethanol feedstock, now surpassed by grains in India’s ethanol production in 2023-24.

Canola Oil

Canola oil is derived from a low-erucic acid cultivar of rapeseed developed in Canada during the 1950s. The name “Canola” stands for “Canadian oil, low acid.” It was bred specifically to reduce erucic acid content, making it safer for human consumption compared to traditional rapeseed or mustard oils. Canola oil is widely used for cooking due to its mild flavor and high smoke point. It is approved by regulatory bodies like the FDA and is considered heart-healthy because of its low saturated fat and high unsaturated fat content.

Why in news?

Canola oil is mentioned as a safer alternative to mustard oil, which is banned in many countries due to high erucic acid levels.

Capital Gains Account Scheme (CGAS)

The Capital Gains Account Scheme (CGAS) is a government-regulated savings scheme that allows taxpayers to deposit capital gains from the sale of assets when they cannot immediately reinvest the proceeds in a new asset. The scheme provides a safe place to park capital gains funds temporarily, preventing tax liability if reinvestment is made within the stipulated time. Deposits can be made in designated banks and are repayable upon purchase of a new residential property or filing of the tax return. The scheme helps taxpayers comply with sections 54 and 54F of the Income Tax Act, facilitating tax exemption on capital gains.

Why in news?

CGAS is mentioned as a method to defer LTCG tax liability by depositing gains until reinvestment in property, relevant after the recent budget changes affecting property sale taxation.

Capital Gains Tax Indexation

Indexation adjusts the purchase price of an asset for inflation to calculate capital gains, reducing taxable gains. In India, indexation benefits have traditionally applied to long-term capital gains on real estate, helping investors offset inflation’s impact. Recent proposals aim to remove indexation benefits from real estate capital gains to align taxation with other asset classes like equities. This change seeks to reduce arbitrage opportunities and harmonize tax treatment across income types such as salary, business, and rentals. Indexation is crucial in high-inflation environments to prevent over-taxation on nominal gains.

Why in news?

The government proposed changes to capital gains tax rules, including removing indexation benefits for real estate, sparking debate on potential impacts on the housing sector.

Certificates of Deposit (CDs)

Certificates of Deposit are short-term, negotiable money market instruments issued by banks to raise funds. Typically, CDs have maturities ranging from 7 days to one year and pay a fixed interest rate. They are traded in the secondary market and are considered low-risk due to bank backing. Unlike fixed deposits, CDs can be sold before maturity, providing liquidity. In India, CDs are used by banks and financial institutions to manage short-term liquidity requirements. The interest rates on CDs are benchmarked to the yields on government Treasury Bills, linking their cost of borrowing to sovereign debt rates.

Why in news?

The reduction in Treasury Bill supply is expected to lower short-term borrowing costs for firms, including rates on certificates of deposit, as these instruments are benchmarked to government T-bill yields.

Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor

The Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor is a proposed sea route linking India’s east coast port of Chennai with Russia’s far-eastern port of Vladivostok. It aims to reduce cargo transport time from 40 days to approximately 24 days, cutting the distance by about 5,608 km compared to the Western Sea Route via the Suez Canal. The corridor is expected to lower logistics costs, improve trade efficiency, and boost trade in commodities like coking coal, oil, fertilizers, containers, and liquefied natural gas. It is part of India-Russia’s strategic economic partnership, enhancing connectivity and bilateral trade.

Why in news?

PM Narendra Modi announced progress on the Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor during his July 2024 visit to Moscow, denoting its potential to transform India-Russia trade relations.

Composite License

A composite license in insurance allows a single company to underwrite both life and non-life insurance products, unlike the current Indian system where life insurers and general insurers operate separately. This concept is common in banking, where entities like universal banks offer multiple services under one license. The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) currently prohibits composite licensing, restricting insurers to specific product categories. Introducing composite licenses aims to increase operational efficiency, reduce regulatory complexity, and encourage innovation by enabling insurers to diversify their offerings. This could mirror models seen in other global insurance markets.

Why in news?

The Government of India plans to amend the Insurance Act, 1938, to allow composite licenses for insurers, enabling them to offer both life and general insurance products under one entity to promote industry growth and ease of doing business.

Core Inflation

Core inflation excludes volatile items like food and energy to provide a clearer picture of underlying inflation trends. It is considered a better gauge of domestic demand. India’s statistics agency does not officially publish core inflation data; economists estimate it from CPI data. In June 2024, core inflation in India was forecast at 3.10%, an all-time low, despite overall CPI rising. This suggests weak domestic demand despite strong economic growth. Core inflation helps policymakers differentiate between temporary price shocks and sustained inflation pressures. It is crucial for central banks when setting monetary policy.

Why in news?

Core inflation in India remained flat at a low level in June 2024, despite a rise in headline inflation due to food price spikes, influencing Reserve Bank of India’s monetary policy outlook.

Cost Inflation Index (CII)

Cost Inflation Index (CII) is a government-published index used to adjust the purchase price of capital assets for inflation in India. It determines the inflation factor applied to the original cost of assets to compute long-term capital gains tax. The CII is revised annually by the Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT). The base year was shifted to 2001-02, with a base index of 100. This index helps taxpayers reduce tax liability by accounting for inflationary gains on assets held long-term. CII is critical in calculating indexed cost for property, gold, and other unlisted assets.

Why in news?

The Budget 2024-25 proposed removing the indexation benefit based on CII for capital gains tax on unlisted assets, sparking debate on its implications for taxpayers and the real estate market.

Depository Participants (DPs)

Depository Participants (DPs) act as intermediaries between investors and depositories in the securities market. They facilitate the holding and transfer of securities in electronic form and provide services like dematerialization, rematerialization, and account maintenance. DPs can be banks, brokers, or financial institutions authorized by depositories like NSDL or CDSL in India. They collect charges from investors for their services, which may include transaction fees, account maintenance charges, and other service fees. DPs play a vital role in ensuring seamless and secure ownership transfer of securities in the digital trading environment.

Why in news?

DPs are among the members affected by Sebi’s directive to uniformize charges by MIIs, impacting fees charged to end clients.

Domestic Institutional Investors (DIIs)

Domestic Institutional Investors (DIIs) are Indian-based investment entities such as mutual funds, insurance companies, and pension funds that invest in the domestic stock market. DIIs play a critical role in market stability by providing long-term capital. They often act counter to foreign institutional investors (FIIs) during market volatility. Recently, DIIs have turned net sellers, offloading equities worth Rs 2,375 crore, indicating profit booking amid high market valuations. Their actions influence market trends and liquidity. DIIs’ investment patterns are closely monitored as indicators of market sentiment in India.

Why in news?

DII net selling amid record market highs signals cautious profit booking, reflecting concerns over stretched valuations in Indian equity markets.

Economic Threshold Level (ETL)

The Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is the pest population density or damage extent at which the cost of pest control equals the value of crop loss prevented. It serves as a critical decision-making benchmark in pest management, helping farmers avoid unnecessary pesticide use while protecting crop yields. ETL varies by crop, pest species, and local conditions. For PBW in cotton, monitoring male moth counts via pheromone traps helps determine whether the ETL has been exceeded, guiding timely control measures. ETL integration into AI monitoring systems enhances precision agriculture by providing actionable pest alerts.

Why in news?

The AI system in the pilot project uses ETL to alert farmers when PBW populations reach damaging levels, enabling efficient pest control in cotton fields.

Effective Revenue Deficit

The _effective revenue deficit_ was introduced in 2013 as a refinement to fiscal deficit measurement under the FRBM Act. It represents the difference between revenue expenditure (excluding grants for capital assets) and revenue receipts. This concept distinguishes between productive revenue spending and unproductive expenditure, aiming to encourage capital formation by excluding grants for creating assets from deficit calculations. It helps policymakers focus on reducing unproductive consumption while sustaining investments in infrastructure and development. This measure provides a clearer picture of fiscal health by separating routine expenses from growth-oriented spending.

Why in news?

The effective revenue deficit was introduced to improve fiscal management under the FRBM Act, which remains central to India’s budget discussions and reforms in 2024.

Employee Stock Options (ESOPs)

ESOPs are rights granted by companies to employees to purchase shares at a predetermined price after a vesting period. Taxation occurs twice – at exercise (when options convert to shares), the difference between fair market value and exercise price is taxed as a perquisite; and at sale, capital gains tax applies based on holding period. ESOP liquidity often happens via secondary sales to investors or company buybacks. Startups use ESOPs to attract and retain talent. The 2024 budget affects ESOP taxation by treating buyback payouts as ordinary income, increasing employees’ tax liability. ESOPs are distinct from shares until exercised and vested.

Why in news?

New tax rules on share buybacks affect how ESOP payouts are taxed, potentially increasing tax for startup employees selling their shares back to companies.

Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) Scheme

The Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) scheme was introduced by the Government of India to promote exports by allowing import of capital goods at zero customs duty. It covers machinery and equipment used in pre-production, production, and post-production stages. Licence holders must fulfill export obligations within a specified period, typically six years, to retain duty benefits. The scheme aims to improve India’s manufacturing competitiveness by reducing input costs. EPCG licenses are issued under the Foreign Trade Policy and are monitored by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT).

Why in news?

The government has eased compliance norms under the EPCG scheme, extending the installation certificate submission deadline from six months to three years to facilitate easier business operations.

Extended Fund Facility (EFF)

The Extended Fund Facility (EFF) is an IMF lending arrangement providing medium-term financial assistance, typically over 3-4 years, to countries facing serious balance of payments problems. It supports structural reforms aimed at restoring economic stability and growth. Unlike short-term IMF programs, EFF focuses on comprehensive policy packages including fiscal consolidation, financial sector reforms, and anti-money laundering measures. Kenya’s current EFF arrangement includes efforts to increase revenue collection to 25% of GDP and address vulnerabilities in the financial sector. A lesser-known fact is that EFF programs often include rigorous reviews and conditionalities that can influence domestic policy decisions .

Why in news?

Kenya is undergoing the seventh review of its EFF program in 2024, with IMF policy packages tied to fiscal reforms and climate finance access amid challenges from Moody’s downgrade.

Financial Stability Guarantee Fund

The Financial Stability Guarantee Fund is a newly proposed Chinese fund designed to rescue troubled financial institutions to prevent systemic risks. It will be primarily funded by financial institutions, with initial capital raised at 64.6 billion yuan ($8.89 billion) in 2022. The fund aims to grow annually to between 120 billion and 180 billion yuan to handle major crises. It targets systemically important institutions deemed “too big to fail,” including banks and insurers. The law requires troubled institutions to first attempt self-rescue to reduce moral hazard before accessing the fund. The central bank can also provide low-cost loans to support the fund.

Why in news?

The fund is part of a new financial stability law under review by China’s National People’s Congress to strengthen systemic risk prevention in the $66 trillion financial sector.

Financial Stability Matrix

The Financial Stability Matrix is a framework used by the Reserve Bank of India to assess the overall health and resilience of India’s financial system. It evaluates risks and vulnerabilities across banks, non-banking financial companies, insurance firms, and capital markets. The matrix helps monitor systemic risks, liquidity conditions, and credit growth to ensure economic stability. It incorporates macroeconomic factors, regulatory policies, and market dynamics. A robust financial stability matrix indicates a resilient financial ecosystem capable of withstanding shocks and supporting sustainable economic growth.

Why in news?

The RBI recently declared India’s financial stability matrix as robust, marking an opportune moment to strengthen economic frameworks, which is a critical consideration for the upcoming Union Budget.

Financial Stability Report (FSR)

The Financial Stability Report is a biannual publication by the Reserve Bank of India that assesses risks to the financial system. It covers banking, non-banking financial companies, and market risks, including emerging threats like climate change. The FSR marks vulnerabilities that could disrupt financial stability, such as geopolitical tensions, volatile markets, and environmental shocks. It informs policymakers and stakeholders about systemic risks and resilience measures. The report’s inclusion of climate change as a risk reflects growing recognition of environmental factors influencing financial markets and economic stability.

Why in news?

The RBI’s recent Financial Stability Report flagged climate change as risk to the global financial system, emphasizing its impact on inflation and economic growth.

Fiscal Deficit

Fiscal deficit is the difference between the government’s total expenditure and its total revenue (excluding borrowings). It is expressed as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A fiscal deficit indicates the government’s need to borrow funds to meet its spending commitments. Persistent high fiscal deficits can lead to increased public debt and inflation. Governments use fiscal deficit targets to balance growth and inflation control. In 2024-25, India’s fiscal deficit is estimated at 5.1% of GDP, reflecting the government’s borrowing requirements to finance developmental and welfare programs.

Why in news?

The fiscal deficit projection of 5.1% of GDP for 2024-25 was presented by Finance Minister Sitharaman in the Interim Budget, denoting fiscal planning post the 2024 elections.

Flexible Inflation Targeting Framework

The Flexible Inflation Targeting (FIT) framework was adopted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in 2016 to maintain inflation within a targeted range of 2-6%. It allows the central bank to balance inflation control with economic growth by adjusting policy rates based on headline inflation, primarily measured by the consumer price index (CPI). The FIT framework is designed to be responsive to supply and demand shocks, but RBI mainly targets overall inflation, including volatile food and fuel prices. The framework is set for review every five years, with the current phase ending in March 2026.

Why in news?

The 2023-24 Economic Survey suggested excluding food inflation from India’s inflation targeting framework due to its supply-driven nature and high weight in CPI, sparking debate on RBI’s policy approach.

Fly Ash Export

Fly ash is a fine powder byproduct from the combustion of coal in thermal power plants. It is widely used in cement production as a supplementary cementitious material due to its pozzolanic properties, improving concrete strength and durability. India exports fly ash to Bangladesh, where it supports the cement industry. The quality and availability of fly ash depend on coal quality and power plant operations. Export logistics are sensitive to border and transportation disruptions. Fly ash export plays role in Indo-Bangladesh trade, especially in the construction sector.

Why in news?

Fly ash exports from India to Bangladesh are impacted due to the unrest and curfew in Bangladesh, disrupting evacuation logistics and trade flows.

Grandfathering (Taxation Context)

Grandfathering in taxation refers to a provision allowing existing taxpayers or transactions to continue under old tax rules despite new regulations coming into effect. It protects investments made before a cutoff date from new tax liabilities or changes. In capital gains tax, grandfathering often means using the fair market value of an asset as of a specific date to calculate gains, rather than the original purchase price. This prevents retrospective tax increases on past investments. Grandfathering is common in reforms to ease transition and avoid penalizing long-term investors.

Why in news?

The 2024-25 Indian Union Budget’s LTCG tax changes did not include grandfathering for assets purchased after 2001, leading to criticism from stakeholders.

High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLA)

High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLA) are assets that can be easily and quickly converted into cash with little or no loss of value during times of financial stress. They include cash, central bank reserves, and certain government securities. HQLA are categorized into Level 1, 2A, and 2B assets based on liquidity and credit quality. The RBI’s liquidity regulations require banks to maintain a certain proportion of HQLA to meet the Liquidity Coverage Ratio. The classification and valuation of HQLA are critical for banks to balance regulatory compliance with operational liquidity needs.

Why in news?

The RBI’s draft guidelines focus on maintaining adequate HQLA as part of revised liquidity requirements to mitigate risks from increased technology-driven banking transactions.

HSN Code

The Harmonized System of Nomenclature (HSN) is an internationally standardized system of names and numbers to classify traded products. Developed by the World Customs Organization, it is used globally for customs tariffs and tax purposes. Each product is assigned a unique code, typically 6 to 8 digits, which helps in systematic categorization. India uses HSN codes for GST implementation to standardize tax rates. Despite its global use, many industries face challenges as different HSN codes can attract varying tax rates, complicating compliance and accounting. The uniform tax policy aims to address these complexities by ignoring HSN code differences for aircraft parts.

Why in news?

The 53rd GST Council recommended a uniform 5% tax on aircraft parts irrespective of their HSN codes to simplify tax structures and reduce operational costs in the aviation sector.

Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI)

The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) is a regulatory body established in 2016 under the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) to oversee insolvency professionals, insolvency professional agencies, and information utilities. It aims to consolidate and amend laws relating to reorganization and insolvency resolution of corporate persons, partnership firms, and individuals in a time-bound manner. The IBBI regulates the entire insolvency process in India, ensuring transparency and efficiency. It also issues regulations, guidelines, and circulars to standardize procedures. The board comprises a chairperson and members from the finance ministry, law ministry, and Reserve Bank of India.

Why in news?

The IBBI launched electronic forms LIQ 1 to LIQ 4 to streamline the liquidation process under the IBC, enhancing compliance and reporting efficiency for insolvency professionals.

Interest Equalisation Scheme (IES)

The Interest Equalisation Scheme was introduced by India in 2015 to boost exports by providing exporters with interest subsidies on pre and post-shipment export credit. It reduces the effective interest rate by reimbursing part of the interest paid, thereby lowering export financing costs. The scheme targets labor-intensive and MSME sectors to enhance competitiveness internationally. It has been extended multiple times and covers various tariff lines. The subsidy rates vary by sector, with textiles and garments receiving higher benefits. The scheme is crucial for maintaining export growth in challenging global economic conditions.

Why in news?

Extension of the Interest Equalisation Scheme for five years was proposed to support MSME exporters amid rising interest rates and geopolitical challenges.

Inverse ETFs/Funds

Inverse ETFs/Funds aim to deliver returns that move in the opposite direction of a specific index or benchmark. They use derivatives like futures and options to achieve this negative correlation, allowing investors to profit from market declines or hedge existing portfolios. These products are common in markets like Australia and the US but are not yet permitted in India. They offer daily liquidity and can be used for speculation or risk management. The complexity and risk associated with derivatives-based inverse ETFs require regulatory oversight, which Sebi plans to implement under the new asset class framework.

Why in news?

Sebi’s new asset class proposal includes Inverse ETFs/Funds to enable Indian investors to access inverse market strategies that are currently unavailable domestically.

Inverted Duty Structure

An inverted duty structure occurs when the tax rate on inputs or raw materials is higher than that on the finished product, leading to tax credit accumulation and cash flow issues for businesses. This phenomenon disrupts manufacturing and service sectors by increasing costs and complicating tax compliance. In aviation, varying GST rates on aircraft components caused such an inverted structure, adversely affecting Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) service providers. Addressing inverted duty structures is crucial for smooth operations and financial health of industries relying on multiple input goods with different tax slabs.

Why in news?

The new uniform 5% IGST rate on aircraft parts aims to eliminate the inverted duty structure in the aviation MRO sector, facilitating smoother tax credit flow and operational efficiency.

Invisible Trade

Invisible trade refers to the exchange of services and other non-physical transactions across borders. It includes sectors like banking, insurance, IT services, tourism, transport, and remittances from expatriates. Unlike merchandise trade, invisible trade is not visible as physical goods but impacts a country’s current account. India’s invisible trade surplus often offsets its merchandise trade deficit, contributing positively to the overall current account balance. The term ‘invisible’ stems from the intangible nature of these transactions, which are harder to track but crucial for economies with large service sectors or remittance inflows.

Why in news?

India’s Q4 current account surplus was largely driven by a surplus in invisible trade, despite a deficit in merchandise trade.

Kendu Leaves (Tendu Leaves)

Kendu leaves, also known as tendu leaves, are primarily used for rolling beedis, a traditional Indian cigarette. They are non-timber forest produce (NTFP) and a major source of income for tribal communities in central and eastern India. The leaves are harvested during the dry season, typically from February to April, and sold to licensed traders or forest departments. India is the largest producer of kendu leaves globally. The leaves dry naturally and are valued for their smooth texture, which makes them ideal for rolling tobacco. The trade is regulated due to its economic importance and environmental impact.

Why in news?

Indigenous forest dwellers in Odisha’s Koraput district face delays in permits to sell 620,000 bundles of kendu leaves, risking spoilage and economic loss amid disputes with the forest department over direct sales rights.

Kharif Crops

Kharif crops are sown with the onset of the southwest monsoon (June to September) and harvested at the end of the monsoon season. Common Kharif crops in India include paddy, maize, millets (jowar, ragi, bajra), pulses (arhar, urad, moong), oilseeds (groundnut, soybean, sunflower), sugarcane, jute, and cotton. These crops rely heavily on monsoon rainfall for growth. The term Kharif originates from Arabic, meaning autumn, reflecting the harvest season. The sowing area and production of Kharif crops influence India’s food security and economy, as they constitute the majority of the annual crop production.

Why in news?

Kharif crops are in focus due to a 94% reduction in paddy sowing area compared to normal, caused by deficient monsoon rains in June 2024, affecting overall Kharif crop coverage.

Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR)

The Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) is a global regulatory standard requiring banks to hold a minimum amount of high-quality liquid assets (HQLA) to cover total net cash outflows over a 30-day stress period. HQLA includes cash, reserves with central banks, and government bonds that can be quickly converted to cash. The LCR aims to improve banks’ short-term resilience to liquidity disruptions. The RBI has proposed changes to the LCR framework to better address risks associated with increased digital banking and deposit withdrawal behaviors, enhancing banks’ liquidity risk management.

Why in news?

RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das proposed updates to the LCR framework in April 2024 to strengthen banks’ liquidity resilience amid growing digital banking risks.

Long Term Capital Gains (LTCG) Tax

Long Term Capital Gains tax in India applies to profits from the sale of assets held for more than 12 months, primarily equities and mutual funds. Introduced in 2018 at 10% without indexation benefits, it targets gains exceeding Rs 1 lakh annually. The tax rate was increased to 12.5% in 2024 to curb excessive profit booking and stabilize market volatility. LTCG tax impacts investor behavior and government revenue. It excludes dividends, which are taxed separately. The hike reflects the government’s effort to balance market growth with fiscal prudence.

Why in news?

The Union Budget 2024 announced an increase in LTCG tax from 10% to 12.5% to address rising equity investments and profit booking.

Maastricht Treaty Fiscal Criteria

The Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992, established the European Union and set strict fiscal criteria for eurozone countries – sovereign debt must not exceed 60% of GDP and annual budget deficits must stay below 3% of GDP. These rules were designed to ensure fiscal stability and prevent excessive government borrowing. However, the criteria have been flexibly interpreted or suspended during crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Less known is that the treaty also laid the groundwork for the European Central Bank and the euro currency, and its fiscal rules continue to be a point of contention in EU economic governance.

Why in news?

The article discusses how France’s and Italy’s current debt and deficit levels far exceed Maastricht limits, raising concerns about fiscal discipline and the EU’s ability to enforce these criteria.

Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) in Aviation and Shipping

Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) refers to the comprehensive processes involved in maintaining, repairing, and overhauling aircraft and ships to ensure safety, performance, and regulatory compliance. The MRO sector is critical for operational efficiency and asset longevity. India has been promoting domestic MRO facilities to reduce dependence on foreign services and lower costs. Recent policy changes extend the permissible period for export of imported goods for repairs from six months to one year and re-import under warranty from three to five years, enhancing MRO operational timelines. The sector also benefits from a uniform 5% GST on imported aircraft and parts.

Why in news?

The 2024-25 Budget provides incentives to boost domestic aviation and ship MRO activities, including extended repair timelines and tax benefits, aiming to position India as a regional MRO hub.

Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs)

Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs) in India include entities like stock exchanges, clearing corporations, and depositories that provide the framework for securities trading. MIIs act as intermediaries ensuring smooth market operations and regulatory compliance. They are classified as public utility institutions and have quasi-regulatory roles, including enforcing rules and ensuring fair market access. MIIs collect transaction charges from their members monthly, often using volume-based slabs, and provide paybacks based on trading volumes. This system influences brokerage fees and market dynamics. MIIs play important role in maintaining market integrity and transparency in the Indian securities market.

Why in news?

Sebi has mandated MIIs to apply uniform charges to all members from October 1, ending volume-based discounts to promote fairness and transparency in market fees.

Middle-Income Trap

The Middle-Income Trap is an economic concept where a country experiences rapid growth to reach middle-income status but then stagnates and fails to transition into a high-income economy. Typically, this occurs because the country loses its competitive edge in low-cost manufacturing and fails to innovate or upgrade its industries. Nations caught in this trap face challenges such as rising wages, lack of technological progress, and insufficient investments in education and infrastructure. Only a few countries have successfully escaped this trap by maintaining 7-10% GDP growth over 20-30 years.

Why in news?

India’s NITI Aayog brought into light the need to avoid the Middle-Income Trap to achieve its 2047 vision of becoming a USD 30 trillion economy and a high-income country.

Mule Accounts

Mule accounts refer to bank accounts used to facilitate illegal transactions, often in money laundering or fraud schemes. These accounts receive illicit funds and transfer them to other parties to obscure the money trail. Banks deploy advanced monitoring systems to detect abnormal transaction patterns, such as unusual inflows and outflows or frequent transfers to multiple accounts. The term “mule” is derived from the idea of carrying illicit funds like a pack animal. Financial institutions are required to report suspicious activities involving mule accounts under anti-money laundering (AML) regulations.

Why in news?

The RBI meeting discussed strategies to identify and mitigate risks from mule accounts to curb digital fraud and enhance cybersecurity in banks.

National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER)

The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) is India’s oldest and one of the largest independent economic think tanks, established in 1956. It conducts policy-oriented research in areas such as macroeconomics, agriculture, industry, infrastructure, and social sectors. NCAER is known for its rigorous data collection and analysis, including large-scale household surveys and business surveys. It provides evidence-based policy advice to government and industry. NCAER also partners with international organizations and has contributed to India’s economic reforms and development planning. Its work on logistics cost assessment is critical for improving supply chain efficiency in India.

Why in news?

NCAER was tasked by DPIIT to conduct a detailed study and framework development for logistics cost assessment in India for the fiscal year 2023-24, following its earlier 2023 report on logistics costs.

National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI)

The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) is an umbrella organization for operating retail payments and settlement systems in India. Founded in 2008, NPCI is an initiative of the Reserve Bank of India and Indian Banks’ Association. It developed key payment platforms such as UPI (Unified Payments Interface), IMPS (Immediate Payment Service), and BBPS. NPCI is responsible for promoting digital payments and financial inclusion across India. It operates as a not-for-profit organization and is owned by a consortium of major banks. NPCI’s platforms have revolutionized digital payments, with UPI transactions reaching 13.9 billion in June 2024.

Why in news?

NPCI manages the newly mandated BBPS routing for credit card bill payments, streamlining and centralizing payment processing under RBI guidelines.

NK Singh Committee

The _NK Singh Committee_, formed in 2016, was tasked with reviewing the FRBM Act and recommending reforms. It critiqued the Act’s rigid fiscal deficit targets as impractical in a dynamic economy. The Committee proposed emphasizing debt reduction, establishing an autonomous fiscal council for independent oversight, and setting clear guidelines for permissible deviations from fiscal targets. It also recommended restricting government borrowing from the Reserve Bank of India to temporary shortfalls funded by securities. The Committee’s recommendations aimed to balance fiscal discipline with flexibility, influencing subsequent amendments and fiscal policy strategies in India.

Why in news?

The NK Singh Committee’s recommendations continue to influence fiscal policy reforms and discussions on the FRBM Act’s amendment in 2024.

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) are financial institutions in India that provide banking services without holding a banking license. They play important role in financial inclusion by offering loans, credit facilities, and investments to underserved sectors like Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs). NBFCs are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India but have more relaxed compliance norms compared to banks. They are instrumental in bridging credit gaps in rural and semi-urban areas. NBFCs contribute to the economy, supporting sectors often ignored by traditional banks, and are very important in the growth of India’s Fintech ecosystem.

Why in news?

NBFCs are brought into light in the upcoming Union Budget as key players for financial inclusion and innovation, with expectations of relaxed taxation and compliance policies to empower them and support Micro and Small Enterprises effectively.

Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs)

Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) are trade restrictions that do not involve tariffs. They include measures like import quotas, licensing requirements, technical standards, certification processes, and pre-shipment inspections. NTBs often aim to protect human, animal, or plant health and the environment but can become arbitrary and unjustified, impeding international trade. Unlike tariffs, which are direct taxes on imports, NTBs can be less transparent and harder to quantify. They frequently affect agricultural and industrial exports by imposing complex regulatory hurdles or quality standards that exporters must meet.

Why in news?

India is developing a platform to register and address NTBs faced by exporters to improve trade relations and meet export targets by 2030.

Northeastern Coalfields (NECIL)

Northeastern Coalfields (NECIL) is a subsidiary of Coal India Limited (CIL), primarily operating in the northeastern region of India. It manages coal mining activities in Assam and neighboring states. NECIL’s operations are centered around the Margherita sub-division in Tinsukia district. It currently produces around two lakh metric tonnes of coal annually, with plans to increase production to 15 lakh metric tonnes. NECIL plays important role in regional coal supply and employment. It also engages in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs aimed at improving local infrastructure like schools and hospitals in mining areas.

Why in news?

NECIL is expanding coal production in Assam’s Margherita sub-division from 2 lakh to 15 lakh metric tonnes annually to boost local industries and state revenue.

Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) Regime

The Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) regime in India subsidises fertilisers based on their nutrient content—nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulphur (S)—rather than controlling prices directly. Introduced to rationalise fertiliser subsidies, it technically allows manufacturers to set prices, receiving a fixed per-tonne subsidy linked to nutrient composition. However, since April 2023, informal price controls have been applied via maximum profit margins, limiting subsidy payments if prices exceed reasonable MRPs. NBS covers most non-urea fertilisers, unlike urea, which remains under strict price control. This system aims to promote balanced nutrient use and reduce fiscal burden while supporting farmers.

Why in news?

The NBS regime is central to recent discussions on fertiliser price controls and subsidy allocations in India’s Union Budget and policy reforms.

Opec+

Opec+ is an expanded coalition of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and other major oil producers, including Russia. Formed in 2016, it coordinates oil production policies to stabilize global oil markets and influence prices. Unlike OPEC alone, Opec+ includes non-OPEC members, making it a powerful force in global energy markets. Azerbaijan joined Opec+ recently, committing to increase oil production targets by 2028. The group’s decisions impact global energy supply, pricing, and geopolitics, especially amid climate and energy transition debates.

Why in news?

Azerbaijan’s recent membership in Opec+ and its production increase plans are discussed in the context of its role as a fossil fuel producer hosting the UN climate conference Cop29.

Priority Sector Lending Classification for EV Charging Infrastructure

Priority Sector Lending (PSL) is a classification by Indian banks to provide easier credit access to sectors crucial for economic development. Proposals suggest classifying EV charging infrastructure under PSL to reduce financing costs for charge point operators. This would lower interest rates and improve loan availability, addressing one of the biggest barriers to EV adoption – high infrastructure costs. Charging infrastructure costs mainly include electricity, real estate, and financing. While electricity and real estate costs are less controllable, PSL classification can ease financing burdens, accelerating EV infrastructure development across India.

Why in news?

Experts and industry stakeholders are urging the government to classify EV charging infrastructure under PSL to reduce financing costs and boost EV adoption ahead of Budget 2024.

Public Infrastructure Investment Trust (InvIT)

A Public Infrastructure Investment Trust (InvIT) is a financial instrument that allows investors to pool money to invest in infrastructure projects like highways, power plants, and pipelines. InvITs are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and provide a way for infrastructure owners to monetize their assets by selling stakes to public investors. Investors earn income through dividends from toll collections or lease rentals. InvITs improve liquidity in infrastructure financing and help attract both institutional and retail investors. They are relatively new in India, gaining prominence post-2014 as a tool for asset monetisation.

Why in news?

NHAI’s asset monetisation cell is tasked with forming InvITs to facilitate highway asset monetisation and attract investments.

Robusta Coffee

Robusta coffee is a coffee species known for its higher caffeine content and stronger, more bitter taste compared to Arabica. It typically grows at lower altitudes and is more resistant to pests and diseases. Robusta beans have a thicker skin and contain about twice the caffeine of Arabica. It is widely used in instant coffee and espresso blends for its crema and robust flavor. India’s Robusta coffee is unique due to shade-grown cultivation and mixed cropping, which enhances its taste and environmental benefits like carbon sequestration. It forms portion of India’s coffee exports.

Why in news?

Robusta coffee prices in India have peaked due to international demand, drought-related production drops in other coffee-producing countries, and increased local production costs.

Rupee Settlement Mechanism

The Rupee Settlement Mechanism is a trade payment system introduced by the Reserve Bank of India in July 2022 to facilitate international trade using the Indian rupee instead of the US dollar. It allows Indian exporters and importers to settle payments directly in rupees, bypassing dollar transactions and reducing currency risk. However, challenges include the lack of a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for banks and volatility in the rupee and ruble exchange rates. Private banks hesitate to use it due to fear of Western sanctions, limiting its adoption in trade with countries like Russia.

Why in news?

Despite RBI’s circular, Indian exporters face difficulties using the rupee settlement mechanism for trade with Russia, hindering efforts to internationalize the rupee.

SCO Investment Fund

The SCO Investment Fund is a newly proposed financial mechanism aimed at boosting economic cooperation among member states. It is intended to facilitate investments in infrastructure, technology, and regional development projects within the SCO area. The fund will support economic preferences and incentives to strengthen trade and investment ties among members. While still in the planning phase as of mid-2024, it represents step towards economic integration. The fund aims to leverage the combined economic strength of SCO countries, whose GDP exceeds $23 trillion, to promote sustainable growth and regional stability.

Why in news?

Kazakhstan, as the 2024 SCO chair, has put forward the initiative to create the SCO Investment Fund during the July summit to enhance economic cooperation.

Short Selling

Short selling is an investment strategy where an investor borrows shares to sell them at the current price, hoping to buy them back later at a lower price to profit from the difference. This practice bets on a stock’s decline and can expose market risks. Short sellers often conduct deep research to identify overvalued or fraudulent companies. While controversial, short selling provides liquidity and price discovery in markets. Regulatory bodies monitor it to prevent market abuse. In India, short selling is permitted under specific regulations but faces scrutiny when linked to market manipulation or misinformation. It is a vital but debated tool in global finance.

Why in news?

Hindenburg Research’s short-selling of Adani Group stocks led to regulatory scrutiny by SEBI, denoting the contentious role of short selling in exposing or impacting corporate valuations and market dynamics.

Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)

Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) are international reserve assets created by the IMF to supplement member countries’ official reserves. In 2021, the IMF allocated $650 billion in SDRs to help countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, distribution was uneven – G7 countries (772 million people) received $280 billion, while Africa (1.3 billion people) got only $34 billion. SDRs can be exchanged for freely usable currencies but are allocated based on IMF quotas, favoring wealthy nations. This disparity limits poorer countries’ financial flexibility during crises.

Why in news?

The unequal SDR allocation fuels resentment in Kenya and other developing countries protesting IMF policies and their economic consequences in 2024.

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) were introduced by the IMF in 1986 to enforce economic reforms in borrowing countries. SAPs typically require cutting public spending, privatizing state enterprises, reducing tariffs, and promoting export-led growth. A 2002 study by SAPRIN found SAPs caused job losses, decline in domestic manufacturing, decimation of small farms, and increased poverty due to reduced state services. Despite criticism, SAP-like austerity conditions persist in IMF loans. Recently, the IMF added “social spending floors” to protect education and health budgets, but Oxfam reported that for every $1 encouraged on public services, $6 were cut elsewhere.

Why in news?

Kenyan protests in 2024 partly oppose IMF-imposed austerity measures that resemble SAPs, which have historically triggered economic hardship and social unrest in developing nations.

Trade Receivables Discounting System (TReDS)

TReDS is an electronic platform in India facilitating the financing of trade receivables of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) through multiple financiers. It was introduced by the Reserve Bank of India to improve liquidity and reduce delays in payments. TReDS allows MSMEs to upload their invoices, which financiers can bid to discount, providing early payment. It operates through three registered entities – RXIL, A.TReDS, and M1xchange. The system supports transparency, reduces credit risks, and enhances cash flow for MSMEs. It also promotes formal credit flow and integrates with GST and other regulatory frameworks for verification.

Why in news?

TReDS is mentioned as one of the non-bank payment system operators (PSOs) required to comply with RBI’s new cyber resilience and digital payment security guidelines by April 1, 2025.

Urals Crude

Urals crude is a major Russian export blend of crude oil, named after the Ural Mountains. It is a medium sour crude oil, combining heavy sour oil from the Urals and Volga regions with lighter oil from Western Siberia. Urals crude is a benchmark for Russian oil prices in global markets. It is typically less expensive than Brent or WTI crude due to its higher sulfur content, requiring more refining. India imports Urals crude to process into petroleum products, benefiting from its lower cost. The blend’s quality affects refining yields and pricing in international trade.

Why in news?

India has saved over $10 billion by importing cheaper Russian Urals crude in the last two years, helping reduce its oil import bill amid geopolitical tensions.

Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC)

The Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC) is a 1506-kilometre broad gauge freight railway line in India, connecting Khurja in Uttar Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Maharashtra. It is designed exclusively for freight trains to decongest existing passenger routes. The corridor serves major industrial hubs and ports like Mundra, Kandla, Pipavav, and Hazira in Gujarat. The project is managed by the Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL). It reduces freight transit time by nearly 50% between western ports and northern India, facilitating faster movement of goods like coal and perishable commodities such as milk.

Why in news?

WDFC is nearing completion with 96.4% operational status and expected to be finished by December 2025, impacting freight logistics and costs in India.

Geography (Indian & Physical)

Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount

The Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount is an underwater mountain located in the Indian Ocean, known for its deposits of polymetallic sulphides and ferromanganese crusts. These deposits contain valuable metals such as copper, gold, silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and rare earth elements. Polymetallic sulphides form around hydrothermal vents, while ferromanganese crusts accumulate slowly on seamount surfaces. The seamount is a target for deep-sea mineral exploration due to its rich resource potential. India expects to receive exploration permits from the ISA for this region.

Why in news?

India is seeking exploration permits from the ISA for the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount region as part of its efforts to develop seabed mining capabilities for critical minerals.

Aphelion

Aphelion is the point in Earth’s orbit where it is farthest from the Sun, occurring annually in July. At aphelion, Earth is approximately 94.5 million miles from the Sun, about 3 million miles farther than at perihelion, its closest point. This distance difference causes the Sun to appear about 4% smaller in the sky at aphelion, a change too subtle to notice without instruments. Earth’s orbit is elliptical due to gravitational interactions, mainly influenced by Jupiter. Aphelion slightly reduces solar energy received by Earth by 7%, but seasons are primarily driven by axial tilt, not distance.

Why in news?

Earth reached aphelion in July 2024, marking the annual event when our planet is at its greatest distance from the Sun during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer.

Beki River

The Beki River is a tributary of the Brahmaputra in Assam, known for its dynamic and unpredictable course. Since 2004, it has carried about 80% of the silt load of itself and the Manas River, increasing its flood hazard. The river’s course shifted due to heavy siltation and excess water release from Bhutan’s Kurichu Dam, causing severe bank erosion in Barpeta and Baksa districts. This erosion threatens the Manas National Park and has displaced over 1.3 lakh people across 222 villages. The porous soil and subterranean flows exacerbate erosion, making flood management difficult.

Why in news?

The Beki River recently changed course, destroying a state highway and displacing thousands in Assam. Floods and erosion have worsened due to lack of protective measures and coordination among local authorities.

Carpathian Mountains

The Carpathian Mountains stretch across Central and Eastern Europe, covering parts of Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary. They are the second-longest mountain range in Europe after the Alps. The Carpathians are a biodiversity hotspot, home to Europe’s largest populations of brown bears, wolves, and lynxes. The region’s dense forests and varied terrain provide critical habitat for many species. The mountains also face threats from illegal logging, agricultural expansion, and human settlement, which impact wildlife behavior and habitats.

Why in news?

The Carpathian Mountains are the primary habitat of Romania’s brown bears, where increasing human activity and deforestation have led to more frequent bear-human conflicts, prompting emergency government action.

Carriacou Island

Carriacou Island is the largest of the Grenadine islands, part of Grenada in the Caribbean Sea. It spans about 34 square kilometers and has a population of around 8,000 people. Carriacou is known for its coral reefs, fishing industry, and traditional boat-building culture. The island hosts the annual Carriacou Regatta, a festival celebrating maritime heritage. It has limited infrastructure, making it vulnerable to hurricanes. Carriacou’s ecosystem includes mangroves and tropical forests. It was historically a plantation economy under British colonial rule and relies heavily on tourism and agriculture.

Why in news?

Hurricane Beryl made landfall on Carriacou Island as a Category 4 hurricane on July 1, 2024, causing severe damage.

Census Towns in India

Census towns in India are settlements classified as urban based on census criteria but lack an urban local body or municipality. They must have a minimum population of 5,000, at least 75% of the male working population engaged in non-agricultural activities, and a population density of 400 persons per sq km. India has nearly 4,000 such towns, which are administratively rural but functionally urban. They often lack adequate urban infrastructure and governance, complicating fiscal devolution and urban planning. Census towns’ growth reflects rapid urbanisation and migration, especially to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, but they remain underrepresented in financial allocations.

Why in news?

The 16th Finance Commission must consider the growing number of census towns and their fiscal needs, especially given the absence of updated census data since 2011.

Cumbum Valley

Cumbum Valley is a prominent grape-growing region in Theni district, Tamil Nadu, known for its favorable climate and soil for viticulture. It is part of the Western Ghats foothills and benefits from moderate temperatures and well-drained soils. The valley supports both open and protected grape cultivation, contributing to Tamil Nadu’s grape output. Cumbum Valley is also a center for agricultural research and farmer training, especially in grape production technologies. Its viticulture practices serve as a model for other regions in India attempting to diversify and increase grape production.

Why in news?

The valley hosted a TNAU-organized training-cum-demonstration program to introduce new grape varieties and cultivation techniques to local growers.

Geological Survey of India (GSI)

The Geological Survey of India, established in 1851, is the premier government agency responsible for conducting geological surveys and mineral resource assessments. GSI produces geological maps, mineral reports, and exploration data vital for mining and infrastructure projects. It classifies mineral blocks by exploration levels (G1 to G4) and provides scientific inputs for resource management. GSI also monitors seismic activity and groundwater resources. Its data underpins policy decisions and mineral block auctions. The agency operates under the Ministry of Mines and has regional offices across India.

Why in news?

GSI handed over 38 geological reports to Jharkhand, but only five blocks have been auctioned, denoting delays in utilizing GSI data for mineral block sales.

Glauconite

Glauconite is a greenish mineral belonging to the mica group, rich in iron and potassium, often found in marine sedimentary rocks. It is used primarily as a soil conditioner in agriculture due to its potassium content and slow nutrient release. Glauconite forms in shallow marine environments through the alteration of fecal pellets and clay minerals. It is also used as a minor ore of potassium and as a pigment. Its presence indicates slow sedimentation rates and marine transgressive conditions in geologic history. Globally, glauconite deposits are limited and considered less economically compared to other potassium sources.

Why in news?

Glauconite blocks are part of the critical mineral auctions in India, with deposits in Chhattisgarh offered for mining rights amid efforts to boost domestic mineral production.

Ilmenite

Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the chemical formula FeTiO3 and is the primary source of titanium dioxide (TiO2), used as a white pigment in paints, plastics, and paper. India holds about 11% of the world’s ilmenite deposits, mainly along its coastal regions. Despite this, India imports nearly a billion dollars worth of titanium dioxide annually. Ilmenite is also used in the production of titanium metal and welding rods. It forms through igneous and metamorphic processes and is often found in beach sands and heavy mineral deposits. Its extraction involves separation from other heavy minerals like rutile and zircon.

Why in news?

India’s ilmenite reserves contrast with high titanium dioxide imports, denoting untapped mineral potential amid efforts to develop critical mineral supply chains.

Koyna-Warna Seismic Zone

The Koyna-Warna seismic zone in Maharashtra, is a notable region of reservoir-triggered seismicity linked to the impoundment of the Shivaji Sagar Lake (Koyna Dam) in 1962. This zone experiences frequent earthquakes due to stress changes caused by water loading and unloading during monsoon cycles. It features complex geology with Deccan trap lava flows overlying ancient granitic basement rocks. The seismicity here is critically stressed, meaning small perturbations can trigger earthquakes. The zone is a natural laboratory for studying induced seismicity and earthquake mechanics through deep drilling and in-situ monitoring.

Why in news?

The Koyna-Warna zone is central to India’s deep-drilling project aimed at understanding earthquake triggers and fault dynamics beneath the reservoir.

Kraken Mare

Kraken Mare is the largest sea on Titan, Saturn’s moon, spanning an area comparable to the Caspian Sea on Earth. It is composed mainly of liquid hydrocarbons, primarily methane and ethane. Located near Titan’s north pole, Kraken Mare is part of a complex system of seas and lakes formed by Titan’s unique methane cycle. The sea exhibits tidal currents influenced by Saturn’s gravity, with tidal ranges estimated to be around 30 cm. Kraken Mare’s surface shows variations in chemical composition and roughness due to estuaries where methane rivers flow into the sea. It was extensively studied by Cassini’s radar instruments.

Why in news?

New radar data from the Cassini mission reveals detailed surface characteristics and chemical composition variations of Kraken Mare, enhancing understanding of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas and their dynamic processes.

Majuli

Majuli is the world’s largest riverine island, located in the Brahmaputra River in Assam. It spans approximately 352 square kilometers but has been shrinking due to severe erosion. The island is culturally , being a center of Assamese neo-Vaishnavite culture and home to numerous satras (monasteries). Majuli faces frequent flooding, especially from the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, which accelerates land loss. The island’s embankments are crucial for protection but often vulnerable to breaches during flash floods. Despite erosion, Majuli remains a biodiversity hotspot, hosting rare birds and aquatic species unique to its ecosystem.

Why in news?

Majuli experienced sudden flash flooding in 2024 due to combined high water levels in the Brahmaputra and its tributary, the Subansiri, breaching embankments and causing widespread damage.

Marathwada Region

Marathwada is a region in central Maharashtra comprising eight districts – Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar, Dharashiv, Nanded, Beed, Latur, Jalna, Parbhani, and Hingoli. Historically part of the Hyderabad State under Nizam rule until 1948, it became part of Maharashtra after the States Reorganization Act of 1956. The region is known for frequent droughts and agrarian distress. It has a predominantly rural population with agriculture as the main livelihood. Marathwada is culturally rich, with historical sites like Ajanta Caves and the city of Aurangabad (renamed Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar).

Why in news?

The region is the focus of the welfare scheme ‘Mukhya Mantri Majhi Ladki Bahin Yojana,’ with detailed application statistics reported district-wise.

Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands is a micronesian island country located in the central Pacific Ocean, consisting of 29 coral atolls and 5 single islands. It gained independence from the United States in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association. The nation faces challenges such as rising sea levels due to climate change, threatening its low-lying atolls. Its economy relies heavily on US aid, fishing licenses, and remittances. The capital is Majuro. Rarely known, the islands were a site for US nuclear testing between 1946 and 1958, affecting local communities and environment .

Why in news?

India announced infrastructure development projects in the Marshall Islands, including sports and community centers, as part of its Pacific outreach strategy.

Niger River Basin

The Niger River Basin is Africa’s third-longest river system, stretching 4,200 kilometres and crossing nine countries – Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria. It is highly vulnerable to climate change, with recent studies predicting the largest decrease in river flows across Africa. The basin supports millions of people through agriculture, fishing, and transportation. It is a critical transboundary water resource requiring coordinated management under international frameworks like the UN Water Convention. The basin’s health directly impacts food security, livelihoods, and ecosystem sustainability in West Africa.

Why in news?

Ivory Coast’s accession to the UN Water Convention is partly motivated by the need to cooperatively manage the Niger River Basin’s water resources amid climate stress.

Northern Sea Route (NSR)

The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is a shipping lane along the Russian Arctic coast, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It shortens maritime travel between Europe and Asia compared to the traditional Suez Canal route. The NSR is navigable for about 4-5 months annually due to Arctic ice melt, with icebreaker support extending accessibility. Russia controls the route and has been developing infrastructure to boost commercial shipping. The route is strategically important amid climate change and Arctic resource exploration. It also offers potential for increasing trade between Russia and India, especially for energy and raw materials.

Why in news?

India and Russia agreed to support cooperation in developing shipping through the Northern Sea Route, aiming to enhance bilateral trade and Arctic economic activities.

Prakasam Fossil Site

The Prakasam site in Andhra Pradesh is an important paleontological and archaeological location where fossils and artifacts from the Late Pleistocene have been found. It is notable for the recent discovery of the world’s oldest known ostrich nest, measuring 9-10 feet in diameter. The site provides evidence of megafauna that lived in the Indian subcontinent around 40,000 years ago. Prakasam’s fossil deposits help reconstruct the paleoenvironment and study the extinction patterns of large animals. It also offers clues about ancient ecosystems and human interactions with megafauna during the Upper Paleolithic period.

Why in news?

The Prakasam fossil site gained attention due to the unearthing of a 41,000-year-old ostrich nest, offering new data on prehistoric megafauna and their extinction in India.

Sea of Marmara

The Sea of Marmara is an inland sea that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea via the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, respectively. It lies entirely within Turkey, separating the Asian and European parts of the country. The sea covers an area of about 11,350 square kilometers and has a maximum depth of approximately 1,370 meters. It is strategically important for maritime trade and military navigation. The sea is also known for its unique two-layer water system, where less salty surface water overlays denser, saltier deep water coming from the Mediterranean.

Why in news?

The Sea of Marmara was referenced in relation to a 1910 tragedy where thousands of stray dogs were sent to a deserted rock in the sea, leading to their starvation and death.

Subansiri River

The Subansiri is the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra River, originating in the Tibetan Plateau and flowing through Arunachal Pradesh into Assam. It is approximately 518 kilometers long and known for its steep gradient, causing rapid water flow. The river is prone to flash floods, especially during heavy monsoon rains and cloudbursts in Arunachal Pradesh. The Subansiri basin is also the site of the Lower Subansiri Hydroelectric Project, one of India’s largest hydroelectric dams, which has been controversial due to environmental and displacement concerns. The river’s sudden surges impact downstream flood patterns in Assam.

Why in news?

Flash flooding in the Subansiri caused by heavy rainfall in Arunachal Pradesh contributed to the 2024 flooding in Assam, including the breach of embankments on Majuli island.

Transantarctic Mountains

The Transantarctic Mountains stretch over 3,500 kilometers across Antarctica, dividing East and West Antarctica. They are one of the longest mountain ranges on Earth and contain some of the oldest exposed rocks on the continent. These mountains influence Antarctic climate by blocking moist air masses, which promotes the formation of permanent snow and ice caps on their eastern side. The range includes notable features such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys, one of the driest places on Earth. The mountains have been vital in paleoclimate studies, preserving geological records of Antarctica’s glacial history.

Why in news?

The mountains played a key role in the initial formation of East Antarctic ice sheets by intercepting moist air, as recent studies show the timing differences in glaciation between East and West Antarctica.

Triton

Triton is the largest moon of Neptune and is unique for its retrograde rotation, meaning it orbits Neptune in the opposite direction to the planet’s rotation. It likely originated as a dwarf planet or Kuiper Belt object, possibly linked to Pluto, before being captured by Neptune’s gravity. Triton has a thin atmosphere primarily of nitrogen, with surface temperatures around -235°C. It exhibits active geysers that spew nitrogen gas, making it geologically active. Triton’s capture likely disturbed Neptune’s original moon system, causing many to be ejected. Its surface is mostly frozen nitrogen, water ice, and methane ice.

Why in news?

Triton’s unusual retrograde rotation was recently explained by a study suggesting it shares a common origin with Pluto before Neptune captured it.

Tsangpo River

The Tsangpo River originates near Mount Kailash in Tibet and flows eastward over 1,000 km before making a horseshoe bend around Namcha Barwa peak. It enters India as the Siang River in Arunachal Pradesh and later becomes the Brahmaputra River in Assam. The river is notable for its steep gorges and is one of the deepest river canyons globally. It supports rich biodiversity and is culturally to local tribes. The river’s course and flow are crucial for hydropower projects and geopolitical water resource management between India and China.

Why in news?

The Tsangpo River is central to the controversial Upper Siang hydropower project in Arunachal Pradesh, which aims to harness its flow for electricity and strategic purposes amid concerns over Chinese upstream projects.

Tso Lhamo Lake

Tso Lhamo Lake, situated at about 5,280 meters elevation in North Sikkim, is the source of the Teesta River. It is one of the highest lakes in India and located near the border with China. The lake is oligotrophic, meaning it has low nutrient content and supports limited aquatic life. It lies in a cold desert biome with sparse vegetation. Tso Lhamo plays important role in feeding the Teesta River, which is a vital water resource for both India and Bangladesh. The lake’s ecosystem is sensitive to climate change and glacial melt.

Why in news?

Tso Lhamo Lake is mentioned as the origin of the Teesta River, which is at the center of recent water-sharing talks between India and Bangladesh.

Yarlung Tsangpo River

The Yarlung Tsangpo River originates in Tibet and is known as the Siang River in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam, and Jamuna in Bangladesh. It is one of Asia’s major rivers, flowing through three countries before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports diverse ecosystems and millions of people dependent on its waters for agriculture, fishing, and hydropower. Its hydropower potential is , especially in Arunachal Pradesh. The river is geopolitically sensitive due to its transboundary nature and ongoing dam projects by China near Medog, Tibet.

Why in news?

China’s construction of a mega dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo near Arunachal Pradesh has raised concerns about water security and flood risks downstream.

Environment & Ecology

Advanced Ultra Supercritical (AUSC) Thermal Plant

An Advanced Ultra Supercritical (AUSC) thermal plant is a high-efficiency coal-fired power plant operating at ultra-high temperatures and pressures, improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions compared to conventional plants. India’s first 800 MW AUSC plant is planned using indigenous technology to boost baseload power capacity alongside renewable energy sources. AUSC technology enables better thermal efficiency (above 45%) and reduced CO2 emissions per unit of electricity generated. It represents a critical step in balancing India’s energy security and climate commitments by integrating cleaner coal technology.

Why in news?

The Union Budget 2024-25 announced plans to establish India’s first 800 MW AUSC thermal plant to strengthen baseload power capacity and complement renewable energy.

Aedes Mosquito

The Aedes mosquito is a genus of mosquitoes known for transmitting viruses such as Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. They are primarily daytime feeders, with peak activity during early morning and late afternoon. The Aedes aegypti species is the most common vector for Zika virus. These mosquitoes breed in stagnant water found in urban environments like flower pots, discarded tires, and water storage containers. Unlike many other mosquitoes, Aedes lay eggs on wet surfaces just above the waterline, which can survive dry periods for months. Control efforts focus on eliminating breeding sites and using insecticides.

Why in news?

The Union Health Ministry advised states to monitor and control Aedes mosquito infestations to prevent the spread of Zika virus in Maharashtra and other regions.

Aerosol Invigoration

refers to the process where atmospheric aerosols (tiny particles from pollution or natural sources) enhance cloud formation and thunderstorm development. Aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei, increasing cloud droplet numbers but reducing their size, which delays rainfall onset and allows clouds to grow larger and taller. This can intensify storms and rainfall. A lesser-known fact is that aerosol invigoration can increase lightning frequency and hail formation in thunderstorms. It plays role in urban areas where pollution levels are high, influencing local weather and precipitation patterns.

Why in news?

Pollution-induced aerosol invigoration was cited as a factor contributing to uneven and intense rainfall in Delhi during the 2024 monsoon.

Agreement on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ)

The Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) is a landmark international treaty finalized in 2023. It governs marine biodiversity in the high seas, which cover about 64% of the ocean area beyond national jurisdiction or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). The treaty mandates Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources, and mandatory environmental impact assessments for activities affecting marine ecosystems. It also promotes capacity building and technology transfer to developing countries. The treaty complements the 1982 UNCLOS framework and requires ratification by 60 countries to enter into force.

Why in news?

India announced plans to sign and ratify the BBNJ treaty, joining 91 countries that have signed it, aiming to protect the biodiversity of international ocean waters.

Amundsen Sea

The Amundsen Sea is a deep embayment of the Southern Ocean off the coast of West Antarctica, bordered by the Antarctic Peninsula and Marie Byrd Land. It is named after explorer Roald Amundsen, the first person to reach the South Pole. The sea is a critical area for studying ice dynamics because it hosts major glaciers like Pine Island and Thwaites, which contribute to Antarctic ice loss. It is one of the fastest-warming regions in Antarctica, with warm ocean currents accelerating ice melt. The Amundsen Sea Embayment is a focal point for understanding global sea level rise.

Why in news?

Recent research investigated sediment cores offshore the Amundsen Sea, revealing the delayed glaciation of West Antarctica and explaining its vulnerability to modern warming and rapid ice melt.

Antarctic Polar Vortex

The Antarctic polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the South Pole, characterized by strong, circulating winds that trap cold air over Antarctica. It forms annually during the Southern Hemisphere’s winter and weakens in summer. When the vortex is weak, it allows cold Antarctic air to escape northwards, causing unusual cold spells in southern South America and other regions. Its strength varies naturally but can be influenced by climate factors. The vortex plays important role in stratospheric ozone depletion and southern hemisphere weather patterns. It is distinct but analogous to the Arctic polar vortex in the north.

Why in news?

The Antarctic polar vortex weakened in mid-2024, allowing cold air to move into Patagonia and the Southern Cone, causing unusual extreme cold waves and freezing temperatures in July 2024.

Apatani Tribe

The Apatani tribe resides predominantly in the Lower Subansiri Valley of Arunachal Pradesh. Known for sustainable agricultural practices, they use a unique system of wet rice cultivation combined with fish farming in terraces. The tribe is also recognized for their traditional tattooing and nose plugs, although these customs have declined recently. The Apatani have been instrumental in conserving local biodiversity, leading to the naming of Xenophrys apatani in their honor. Their region overlaps with protected areas like the Tale Wildlife Sanctuary, which supports diverse flora and fauna.

Why in news?

The newly discovered frog species, Xenophrys apatani, was named after the Apatani tribe to recognize their role in conserving wild flora and fauna in Arunachal Pradesh.

Aquilaria malaccensis

Aquilaria malaccensis, commonly known as agarwood, is a tropical evergreen tree native to Southeast Asia and parts of India, especially the Northeast. It produces a valuable resinous heartwood when infected by certain fungi after boring by the larvae of the stem borer Neurozerra conferta. This resin is highly prized for incense, perfumes, and traditional medicine. The species was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1995 due to overexploitation. Agarwood formation occurs naturally in trees older than seven years but can be artificially induced in 6-8 year-old trees through physical, chemical, or biological inoculation methods to increase resin production.

Why in news?

India successfully prevented Aquilaria malaccensis from being included in CITES’s Review of Significant Trade and secured a new export quota starting April 2024, benefiting farmers in Northeast India.

Artificial Insemination in Bustard Conservation

Artificial insemination (AI) is a reproductive technology being developed for the Great Indian Bustard to increase breeding success in captivity. It involves collecting and artificially introducing semen to female birds, bypassing natural mating challenges. AI helps maintain genetic diversity and accelerates population growth in small captive populations. This technique is particularly important for species like the GIB, with limited numbers and breeding difficulties. The Wildlife Institute of India plans to operationalize AI in their breeding centers from 2026 to boost captive breeding outcomes and support rewilding efforts.

Why in news?

WII plans to establish an AI lab at the Ramdevra breeding center by 2026 as part of the next phase of the Great Indian Bustard conservation program.

Artificial Reef Modules

Artificial reef modules are man-made structures placed underwater to mimic natural reefs, enhancing marine biodiversity and fish habitats. Typically made from concrete, steel, or other durable materials, they provide shelter and breeding grounds for various marine species. These reefs improve fish stocks, benefiting local fisheries, and help restore damaged ecosystems. The concept dates back to the early 20th century but has gained momentum recently for sustainable fisheries management. Artificial reefs can also protect shorelines by reducing wave energy. Their design varies by location and target species, often tailored to local ecological conditions and fishing practices.

Why in news?

Around 300 artificial reef modules were deployed off the coast of Rameshwaram to boost marine fisheries and support traditional fishermen’s livelihoods.

Asola-Bhati Wildlife Sanctuary

The Asola-Bhati Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area located on the southern ridge of Delhi, covering approximately 32 square kilometers. It forms part of the Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor and is an important ecological zone with dry deciduous forests and scrublands. The sanctuary supports diverse flora and fauna, including leopards, jackals, and migratory birds. It is designated as an eco-sensitive zone to protect its fragile ecosystem from urbanization pressures. The sanctuary also acts as a green lung for Delhi, mitigating pollution and urban heat effects.

Why in news?

The DDA’s unauthorized felling of about 1,100 trees in the eco-sensitive zone around Asola-Bhati Wildlife Sanctuary has triggered contempt proceedings in the Supreme Court.

Banni Grasslands

The Banni Grasslands span approximately 3,500 square kilometres in the southern part of Kutch, Gujarat. They are one of the largest grassland ecosystems in India, characterized by seasonal marshes and saline patches. The grasslands support unique flora and fauna, including antelope species like chinkara and blackbuck, but lack sufficient prey density for sustaining large predators like cheetahs. Unlike nearby reserves, Banni has no leopards, which reduces competition for prey. The area has been considered for cheetah reintroduction and breeding for over a decade, with recent efforts to build conservation infrastructure underway.

Why in news?

Banni is being prepared as a potential site for cheetah breeding and conservation as part of Project Cheetah’s next phase, complementing other habitats like Gandhi Sagar and Kuno.

Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve (BRT)

Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve is located in Karnataka, spanning about 540 square kilometers. It is named after the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple situated within the reserve. The reserve is notable for its coexistence model where the Soliga tribal community lives inside the core tiger habitat. Between 2010 and 2014, the tiger population nearly doubled from 35 to 68, a growth rate higher than the national average. The reserve combines wildlife conservation with respect for indigenous rights, allowing sustainable human activities alongside tiger protection. It is part of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot.

Why in news?

The BRT Tiger Reserve was brought into light positively in a 2024 report for successful coexistence of indigenous people and tigers, contrasting with forced displacement elsewhere.

Binsar Sanctuary

Binsar Sanctuary is a protected area located in Uttarakhand, known for its rich biodiversity and pristine natural habitat. It covers approximately 45 square kilometers and is home to species like leopards, Himalayan black bears, and various birds. The sanctuary was declared a protected area in 1988, leading to restrictions on economic activities such as tree cutting. This has caused tensions with local villagers who previously relied on forest resources for livelihood. The sanctuary is part of the Kumaon Himalayas and is characterized by dense oak and pine forests, with chir pine being notably inflammable.

Why in news?

Binsar Sanctuary was in the news due to unprecedented forest fires in July 2024, which threatened its core and brought into light governance and resource challenges in managing such protected areas.

Bio-input Resource Centres

Bio-input Resource Centres are facilities aimed at producing and distributing natural and organic farming inputs such as biofertilizers, biopesticides, and compost. The government plans to establish 10,000 need-based centres to support natural farming practices and reduce chemical input dependency. These centres serve as hubs for training, resource supply, and technical support to farmers adopting sustainable agriculture. They help in promoting soil health, pest management, and environmental conservation. The initiative aligns with the National Mission on Natural Farming and supports the goal of increasing organic farming adoption across India.

Why in news?

The Finance Minister announced the establishment of 10,000 bio-input resource centres as part of the natural farming promotion strategy in the 2024-25 budget.

Bioaccumulation in Marine Food Chains

Bioaccumulation refers to the gradual buildup of toxic substances, such as oil components, in organisms through the food chain. Oil spills introduce hydrocarbons that accumulate in small marine plants and animals, which are consumed by larger predators. This process leads to higher toxin concentrations in top predators, including fish, birds, and mammals, causing health issues like reproductive failure and growth defects. Bioaccumulation threatens biodiversity and human health, especially for communities relying on seafood. It can cause long-term ecosystem disruptions and economic losses in fishing and tourism industries.

Why in news?

The MT Terra Nova oil spill risks bioaccumulation effects in Manila Bay’s marine ecosystem, threatening wildlife and local fisheries.

Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII)

The Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) measures the average abundance of native terrestrial species relative to their levels before human impact. It provides a quantitative assessment of how much biodiversity remains in a given region. Developed in the early 2000s, BII integrates data from species population surveys and habitat changes. It is widely used in conservation biology and environmental policy to track biodiversity health globally. BII values range from 0 (complete loss) to 100 (pristine conditions). The index helps identify regions where ecosystems are most degraded and guides restoration and land-use decisions. It is sensitive to land-use changes, such as agriculture and urbanization.

Why in news?

BII was used in a recent study to compare biodiversity impacts of planting energy crops versus restoring natural vegetation, denoting regions where energy crops may be less harmful to biodiversity.

Biological Invasions (Alien Plant Species – Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus)

Biological invasions refer to the introduction and spread of non-native species that disrupt local ecosystems. In Kerala’s forests, alien plants like Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus have been widely cultivated, altering natural habitats. These species grow rapidly and outcompete native flora, reducing the availability of natural fodder for elephants. Such changes degrade habitat quality, leading to smaller elephant herds and increased human-elephant conflicts as elephants seek food outside forests. These invasive plants also affect soil chemistry and water availability, further impacting forest ecology and wildlife sustainability.

Why in news?

The Kerala elephant population report identifies biological invasions by alien plants as a key factor in habitat degradation, contributing to smaller herds and increased human-elephant conflict.

Biscuit Basin

Biscuit Basin is a lesser-known geothermal area in Yellowstone National Park, located north of Old Faithful geyser and near Sapphire Pool. It contains a variety of hot springs, geysers, and thermal features formed by the park’s volcanic activity. The basin is named after the biscuit-like mineral deposits found around its pools. It experienced hydrothermal explosions in 2009 and again in 2024, which are caused by superheated water flashing to steam underground. Unlike volcanic eruptions, these events eject water, steam, and mineral debris without lava or magma. The area is less visited than Old Faithful but is geologically .

Why in news?

Biscuit Basin was the site of a hydrothermal eruption on July 23, 2024, which disrupted the area and caught public attention due to the dramatic blackish material ejection.

Blue Sheep (Bharal)

The blue sheep, or bharal (Pseudois nayaur), is a mountain goat species native to the Himalayas, living at altitudes from 3,000 to 5,500 meters. It has a bluish-gray coat and is well adapted to steep, rocky slopes. Bharal are a primary prey species for high-altitude predators and were a major food source for Denisovans, as evidenced by numerous bones found in Baishiya Karst Cave. Unlike true sheep, bharal are more closely related to goats. They play a key ecological role as grazers in alpine grasslands and are culturally to local Himalayan communities.

Why in news?

Bones of blue sheep found in Baishiya Karst Cave reveal Denisovan hunting habits and their reliance on local fauna for survival.

Bomas (Cheetah Enclosures)

Bomas are large, secure enclosures used for acclimatising and temporarily housing wild animals like cheetahs before their release into the wild. In the context of Project Cheetah, bomas at Kuno National Park measure approximately one kilometre by one kilometre, providing ample space for the animals to adjust to local conditions. These enclosures help reduce stress, prevent disease transmission, and allow monitoring of health and behaviour. The use of bomas is critical in managing newly introduced cheetahs from Africa, especially after initial fatalities due to infections and acclimatisation issues.

Why in news?

Cheetahs in Kuno are currently housed in bomas to aid acclimatisation before their planned full release into the wild in October 2024.

Broadleaf Forests in West Antarctica (Paleobotany)

During the late Eocene to early Miocene (around 34 to 27 million years ago), parts of West Antarctica were covered by dense broadleaf forests, indicating a cool-temperate climate rather than icy conditions. Fossil evidence shows these forests included species similar to those found in modern temperate zones, such as southern beech (Nothofagus). This paleobotanical record suggests West Antarctica experienced warmer conditions before permanent ice sheets formed. The presence of forests delayed glaciation in the region. These findings help explain why West Antarctica’s ice sheet is younger and more vulnerable to warming compared to East Antarctica.

Why in news?

Sediment core analysis revealed that West Antarctica was forested and ice-free during the first Antarctic glaciation phase, explaining the delayed ice sheet formation and current regional climate sensitivity.

Bt Cotton

Bt cotton is a genetically modified cotton variety that produces toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to kill certain insect pests. It was developed to reduce pesticide use and increase yields. However, pests like P. gossypiella have shown resistance to Bt toxins in some regions, leading to crop damage despite Bt cultivation. Resistance development is influenced by pest biology, environmental factors, and management practices. Bt cotton adoption varies globally but is widespread in India, the US, and China. Continuous monitoring and integrated pest management are essential to sustain Bt cotton’s effectiveness.

Why in news?

The Pink Bollworm infestation in India has caused up to 68% yield loss in both Bt and non-Bt cotton fields, denoting challenges in pest control despite biotech advances.

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Technology

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) is a thin-film solar cell technology that uses a compound of cadmium and tellurium as the semiconductor. It is known for its low manufacturing costs and high absorption coefficient, allowing thinner layers than silicon-based cells. CdTe modules exhibit lower carbon dioxide emissions and reduced ozone depletion potential compared to other solar technologies. Despite cadmium’s toxicity, CdTe cells have a relatively low environmental impact due to encapsulation and recycling processes. This technology is widely used in utility-scale solar farms and has a shorter energy payback time than traditional silicon panels.

Why in news?

CdTe technology was brought into light in a recent IIT Mandi study as having the lowest environmental impact among solar cell technologies in India, based on a life-cycle assessment excluding recycling stages.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) is a policy tool proposed by the European Union to impose a tax on imported goods based on their carbon emissions during production. It targets energy-intensive products such as iron, steel, cement, fertilizers, and aluminum. The mechanism aims to equalize carbon costs between domestic EU producers and foreign exporters, encouraging lower emissions globally. CBAM is part of the EU’s broader Green Deal to reduce carbon footprints and prevent carbon leakage. It is expected to affect trade dynamics, especially with countries like India and China, by adding a 25% tax on covered goods.

Why in news?

The EU’s CBAM will impose a 25% tax on energy-intensive goods exported from India, potentially impacting India’s GDP by 0.05%, according to a recent report by the Centre for Science and Environment.

Carbon Budget

A carbon budget is a regulatory limit on the total greenhouse gas emissions allowed for a company or sector over a specific period. It is designed to align emissions with national or international climate targets. In South Africa’s new law, the environment minister must allocate carbon budgets to large emitters, setting caps to control pollution. Exceeding the budget may lead to higher carbon taxes, although it is not a criminal offense under the current legislation. Carbon budgeting is a tool increasingly used worldwide to translate climate goals into enforceable emission limits at the organizational level.

Why in news?

The Climate Change Bill mandates carbon budgets for large emitters to curb South Africa’s greenhouse gas emissions and meet Paris Agreement commitments.

Carbonite Minerals

Carbonite minerals are a rare group of minerals formed when water chemically interacts with carbon dioxide and rock. They are often considered indicators of past or present water activity in extraterrestrial environments. Carbonite minerals can form under specific conditions where liquid water alters rock, leading to carbonate deposits. Their presence on icy moons or planets suggests subsurface oceans or liquid water reservoirs. On Earth, carbonite minerals are linked to hydrothermal systems. Detecting carbonite minerals beyond Earth can provide clues about habitability and geochemical processes in the Solar System.

Why in news?

JWST detected signs of carbonite minerals on Ariel, which may indicate water-rock interactions beneath its surface and support the existence of a subsurface ocean.

Caspian Tiger (Panthera tigris virgata)

The Caspian tiger, also known as the Hyrcanian tiger, was native to regions around the Caspian Sea including Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. It inhabited reed beds, floodplain forests, and riverine environments. The last known Caspian tiger was killed in Iran’s Golestan National Park in 1958. Genetic studies show it is closely related to the Amur tiger of the Russian Far East. Its extinction was primarily due to habitat loss and hunting by military and professional hunters during Tsarist and Soviet eras. Restoration efforts now focus on introducing Amur tigers to former Caspian tiger habitats.

Why in news?

The Caspian tiger is discussed in relation to its extinction and current efforts to reintroduce the Amur tiger to Central Asia, where the Caspian tiger once thrived.

Center of Gravity Shift due to Polar Ice Melt

The center of gravity of Earth shifts when large masses like polar ice melt and redistribute water towards the equator. Melting ice from Greenland and Antarctica moves mass from poles to lower latitudes, changing Earth’s moment of inertia and slowing its rotation. This shift affects Earth’s angular momentum, leading to longer days by milliseconds. The phenomenon also influences Earth’s gravitational field and satellite orbits. The shift is measurable via satellite missions like GRACE and impacts geophysical processes, including tectonic activity and sea level rise patterns. This redistribution is accelerating due to increasing global temperatures and ice loss.

Why in news?

The redistribution of mass from polar ice melt is causing Earth’s rotation to slow, lengthening days and impacting timekeeping and satellite operations.

Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET)

The Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET) is a premier research institute in India under ICAR, focused on reducing post-harvest losses and improving food processing technologies. It conducts research on cold storage, packaging, and value addition to extend shelf life and reduce wastage. In 2023, CIPHET reported that India incurred annual post-harvest losses worth Rs 92,650 crore. The institute also develops affordable technologies for farmers and small-scale processors to maintain crop quality after harvest.

Why in news?

CIPHET’s 2023 report quantifying post-harvest losses at Rs 92,650 crore marks the urgency of infrastructure improvements, which remain underfunded in the 2024 Union Budget.

Century Alert

The Century Alert is a proposed new heatwave alert category corresponding to the 99th percentile of temperature data. It indicates exceptionally severe heat events that statistically occur about 2.05 days per year on average. This alert is designed to show extreme temperature spikes beyond the existing red alert threshold, prompting heightened public warnings and emergency responses. The concept aims to improve preparedness for rare but highly dangerous heatwaves, potentially reducing heat-related mortality and economic losses. It reflects advanced climate risk assessment integrating statistical extremes into disaster management frameworks.

Why in news?

Uttar Pradesh’s heatwave study proposes the Century Alert to address exceptionally severe heatwaves, enhancing the state’s capacity to respond to extreme temperature events.

Chipko Movement

The Chipko Movement was an environmental movement that began in the 1970s in Uttarakhand, aimed at protecting trees from commercial logging. Activists hugged trees to prevent them from being cut, hence the name ‘Chipko,’ meaning ‘to cling’ or ‘hug.’ Key figures included Gaura Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, and Sunderlal Bahuguna. It is considered one of the earliest and most successful eco-movements in India, influencing forest conservation policies nationwide. The movement brought into light the importance of forests for local communities and helped promote sustainable development and environmental awareness. It also inspired similar movements globally.

Why in news?

The Chipko Movement is referenced to emphasize the importance of forest conservation amid the ongoing deforestation and urban development challenges faced by Dehradun.

Chital (Axis axis)

The chital, or spotted deer, is a primary prey species for cheetahs in India. Native to the Indian subcontinent, chital are medium-sized deer known for their distinctive white spots and reddish-brown coat. They live in herds and prefer forest edges and grasslands. Chital are crucial for predator-prey balance, supporting carnivores like tigers, leopards, and now cheetahs. Their population dynamics directly affect predator survival. Introducing chital into new habitats like Banni is essential for sustaining cheetah populations, as existing prey species like blackbuck and chinkara are insufficient in number to support large carnivore populations.

Why in news?

Increasing chital populations is key to preparing new habitats, such as Banni and Gandhi Sagar, for sustaining cheetahs under Project Cheetah.

Co-evolution Hypothesis (Megafauna Extinction)

The co-evolution hypothesis suggests that the resilience or extinction of megafauna was influenced by their long-term evolutionary interactions with hominins (early humans and their relatives). It posits that fauna adapted to human presence over time, but geographic isolation and abiotic factors like climate change accelerated their extinction. This theory contrasts with others attributing extinction solely to human hunting or environmental shifts. It emphasizes a complex interplay of biological and ecological factors in Late Quaternary extinctions, particularly in the Indian subcontinent, where fossil records indicate megafauna decline began about 30,000 years ago alongside human arrival.

Why in news?

The co-evolution hypothesis is brought into light in recent studies about megafauna extinction in India, supported by new fossil evidence such as the ostrich nest found in Andhra Pradesh.

Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA)

The Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA) is an Indian regulatory body established under the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005. It regulates aquaculture in coastal areas to ensure environmental sustainability and compliance with safety standards. The CAA issues licenses for shrimp and fish farming along the coast and enforces bans on the use of harmful antibiotics and chemicals in aquaculture. It maintains a list of banned substances, including chloramphenicol and various nitrofuran derivatives, to prevent contamination of seafood exports. The authority works closely with other agencies like MPEDA to uphold international export standards and protect aquatic ecosystems.

Why in news?

CAA guidelines ban chloramphenicol and nitrofurans in shrimp aquaculture, supporting the DCC’s recent recommendation to prohibit these antibiotics in food animal production to ensure export quality and combat antimicrobial resistance.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)

CAMPA is a statutory body in India responsible for managing funds collected as compensation for forest land diverted to non-forest uses. Established under the Compensatory Afforestation Act, 2016, it ensures afforestation and forest conservation activities. Funds are collected from project developers who divert forest land and are used for reforestation, wildlife conservation, and habitat restoration. CAMPA has a nationwide mandate and works in coordination with state forest departments. It plays important role in financing conservation programs such as the Great Indian Bustard recovery plan. The fund is monitored by a central authority with state-level committees for implementation.

Why in news?

CAMPA approved Rs 56 crore funding for the next phase (2024-2029) of the Great Indian Bustard and Lesser Florican conservation program, supporting breeding centers and habitat management efforts.

Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (UN Water Convention)

The UN Water Convention, established in 1992, originally served as a regional framework for pan-European water cooperation. It expanded globally in 2016 to include all UN Member States. The Convention promotes cooperation for sustainable management of transboundary surface water and groundwater. Parties must prevent, control, and reduce negative impacts on water quality and quantity, use shared waters equitably, and establish joint bodies for cooperation. It covers over 60% of Africa’s land area via international river basins and aquifers. It supports climate change adaptation and peace-building through water diplomacy. As of 2024, it has 53 Parties, including 10 African nations.

Why in news?

Ivory Coast became the 10th African country to join the UN Water Convention in 2024, strengthening regional cooperation on shared water resources amid growing climate change challenges.

Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS)

The Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) is a sister program to C3S, focusing on atmospheric composition monitoring. It provides data on air quality, greenhouse gases, solar radiation, and aerosols worldwide. CAMS integrates satellite data with ground-based observations and models to track pollution and greenhouse gas concentrations in near real-time. A lesser-known fact is that CAMS supports aviation by forecasting volcanic ash clouds and their dispersion to ensure flight safety. CAMS data revealed record-high greenhouse gas levels in 2023, including a 2.4 ppm rise in carbon dioxide and an 11 ppb rise in methane.

Why in news?

CAMS data confirmed that greenhouse gas concentrations in 2023 reached unprecedented levels, driving the record-breaking global temperatures in 2024.

Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S)

The Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) is an EU program providing authoritative climate data, tools, and information to support climate adaptation and mitigation. Managed by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), C3S offers global climate monitoring and projections using satellite and ground-based observations. Its datasets include temperature, greenhouse gas concentrations, and wildfire emissions. C3S supports policymakers, researchers, and the public with accurate climate intelligence. It was launched in 2015 as part of the larger Copernicus Earth observation program.

Why in news?

C3S reported that the June 2024 Arctic wildfires caused the third-highest carbon emissions in two decades, emphasizing increasing wildfire severity.

Dark Oxygen

“Dark oxygen” refers to oxygen produced in the absence of light, through abiotic chemical reactions on the ocean floor. It is generated by interactions between metallic minerals in polymetallic nodules and seawater, without photosynthesis or biological activity. This oxygen sustains aerobic life in deep-sea ecosystems where sunlight does not penetrate. The phenomenon challenges the long-held view that oxygen on Earth is solely a product of photosynthetic organisms. Its discovery suggests alternative pathways for oxygen production, which may have implications for understanding the origins of aerobic life and the planet’s oxygen cycle.

Why in news?

Scientists recently reported the discovery of “dark oxygen” production on the deep Pacific seafloor, overturning previous assumptions about oxygen generation and influencing thoughts on deep-sea ecology and mining practices.

Deep Ocean Mission

The Deep Ocean Mission is an initiative by India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences focused on exploring deep-sea habitats at depths ranging from 1000 to 3000 meters. It aims to study species diversity, especially sharks and rays, in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The mission supports scientific expeditions to collect specimens and understand marine biodiversity, with a focus on sustainable use and conservation of deep-sea resources. It involves collaborations between institutions like the Zoological Survey of India and promotes advanced marine research technologies.

Why in news?

The Deep Ocean Mission is conducting deep-sea explorations that led to the discovery of new species like Squalus hima, expanding knowledge of marine life in Indian waters.

Delhi Ridge

The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli hill range, running through Delhi. It acts as a green lung and natural barrier against desertification and pollution. The Ridge is a forested area surrounded by urban development and plays important role in groundwater recharge and maintaining ecological balance. Historically, it was a strategic defense location during the 1857 Indian rebellion. The Ridge is divided into sections like the Central Ridge and Northern Ridge, and it hosts several biodiversity hotspots, including rare flora and fauna species. It also influences local microclimates and water drainage patterns in Delhi.

Why in news?

Mentioned in the context of Minto Bridge flooding, the Delhi Ridge’s location between the bridge and Yamuna floodplains impacts water drainage and urban flooding challenges.

Double Pruning and Double Cropping System

The Double Pruning and Double Cropping System is a unique agronomic practice developed in Tamil Nadu that enables two grape harvests annually. This system involves pruning the grapevines twice in a year, allowing for regular season and off-season production. It enhances yield potential and helps stabilize income for grape growers. The method is suited to Tamil Nadu’s climatic conditions and is a key factor in increasing grape production efficiency. It also helps in better resource utilization and maintaining fruit quality across seasons, making it a vital innovation in Indian viticulture.

Why in news?

The system was brought into light during a training-cum-demonstration program by TNAU to improve grape yields and support farmers in Tamil Nadu.

Drugs Consultative Committee (DCC)

The Drugs Consultative Committee (DCC) is an apex advisory body to the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) in India. It provides expert recommendations on drug regulations, including approvals, bans, and policy changes. The DCC comprises representatives from various ministries, state drug controllers, and experts. It meets periodically to review drug safety and regulatory issues. The committee’s recommendations influence national drug policy but require approval from the Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB). The DCC plays a key role in controlling antibiotic use in food animal production to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR), as seen in its recent recommendation to ban chloramphenicol and nitrofurans.

Why in news?

The DCC recommended banning chloramphenicol and nitrofurans in food animal production to address antibiotic misuse and antimicrobial resistance, following proposals from MPEDA and support from the Empowered Committee on Animal Health.

Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA)

An Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA) is a designated region around protected areas, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries in India aimed at minimizing harmful human activities. ESAs act as buffer zones where activities like mining, deforestation, and construction are regulated or banned to protect ecological balance. The concept was introduced under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. Notification of an ESA requires coordination between central and state governments. The Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has faced delays in ESA notification despite being ecologically critical. ESAs help prevent soil erosion, landslides, and biodiversity loss by controlling land use and development.

Why in news?

The Western Ghats region is facing landslides due to lack of finalized ESA notification, exposing failure in protecting the ecologically fragile area from hazardous human activities.

EMIT (Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation)

The Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) is a NASA mission launched in 2022 aboard the International Space Station. Its primary objective is to map mineral dust sources on Earth’s surface using hyperspectral imaging. EMIT captures data in the shortwave infrared spectrum to identify dust composition and distribution, which affects climate and air quality. The mission helps improve climate models by understanding how dust influences atmospheric processes and radiative forcing. EMIT’s data also assist in monitoring environmental changes and natural hazards related to dust emissions.

Why in news?

EMIT’s hyperspectral data contributed to detecting and quantifying the methane plume from the Kazakhstan oil field leak, enhancing early detection techniques.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is an environmental policy approach where producers are given responsibility for the treatment or disposal of post-consumer products. In the context of critical minerals, EPR ensures manufacturers take back used products containing these minerals for recycling or safe disposal. This reduces environmental impact and promotes resource efficiency. EPR frameworks often include targets for collection, recycling rates, and penalties for non-compliance. India’s Critical Mineral Mission includes an EPR framework to enhance recycling and sustainable management of critical minerals.

Why in news?

The EPR framework was brought into light as a key mandate within India’s newly announced Critical Mineral Mission to improve recycling and sustainability of critical minerals in July 2024.

Extreme Solar Particle Event

An extreme solar particle event (SPE) involves the sun ejecting a massive number of high-energy protons into space. These particles can reach Earth, potentially damaging the ozone layer by triggering chemical reactions that deplete ozone molecules. Such events occur roughly every thousand years, with the last major one recorded in 993 AD. The depletion can increase ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure by up to 25%, lasting up to six years if Earth’s magnetic field is weak. This elevated UV exposure raises risks of DNA damage and skin cancer. SPEs are distinct from regular solar flares due to their intensity and proton output.

Why in news?

Scientists warn that another extreme solar particle event could happen soon, posing serious risks to Earth’s ozone layer and human health, especially if coinciding with a weakened magnetic field.

Flood Plain Zoning Act

The Flood Plain Zoning Act is legislation aimed at regulating land use in flood-prone areas to reduce flood damage and ensure sustainable development. It mandates the demarcation of flood plains, restrictions on construction, and guidelines for flood plain authorities to manage and monitor these zones. Enactment includes provisions for compensation and removal of obstructions in flood plains. Despite being recommended since the 1970s, its implementation is limited in India. The Act is crucial for accessing central funds under the Flood Management and Border Areas Programme (FMBAP). States like Manipur, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Jammu & Kashmir have enacted it, but enforcement varies.

Why in news?

The Government of India plans to make the enactment of the Flood Plain Zoning Act mandatory for States to access central flood-management funds, as only four States have complied despite repeated reminders.

Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023

The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 is an Indian legislation that amended the original 1980 Act to allow expedited clearance for certain projects. A key provision exempts the diversion of forest land for strategic projects within 100 km of India’s international borders from mandatory forest clearance procedures. This amendment aims to fast-track infrastructure projects deemed vital for national security, including hydropower dams near border areas. Critics argue it reduces environmental oversight and community consent requirements, potentially impacting tribal lands and biodiversity in sensitive zones like Arunachal Pradesh.

Why in news?

The amendment is relevant to the Upper Siang dam project, which is being framed as a strategic initiative near the China border, raising concerns among activists about reduced environmental safeguards.

Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative

The Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative, launched in 2020, is a global campaign aiming to phase out fossil fuels by treating them like nuclear weapons in terms of international control. It advocates for a treaty to stop new fossil fuel exploration and production, phase out existing infrastructure, and support a just transition for affected communities. The initiative is supported by scientists, activists, and policymakers worldwide. A rarely noted fact is that it draws inspiration from the nuclear non-proliferation model, emphasizing disarmament principles applied to fossil fuels to combat climate change.

Why in news?

Its Global Engagement Director Harjeet Singh commented on the UK Labour government’s climate leadership prospects after the July 2024 elections.

Gaur (Bos gaurus)

The gaur is the largest wild cattle species, native to South and Southeast Asia. Adults can weigh up to 1,000 kg and stand 1.7 to 2.2 meters tall at the shoulder. Gaurs primarily inhabit evergreen forests and are known for their muscular build and distinctive dorsal ridge. They are herbivores and important prey for large carnivores like tigers. Historically widespread across India, their populations are now restricted to fragmented pockets in the Western Ghats, central Indian highlands, and northeast India. Gaurs exhibit low genetic diversity in fragmented habitats, increasing their vulnerability to environmental changes and diseases.

Why in news?

The gaur was studied for genetic connectivity disruption caused by roads and land use changes in central India, revealing fragmented populations with low genetic diversity.

Ghepang Ghat Glacial Lake

The Ghepang Ghat Glacial Lake is located at 4,068 metres elevation in Himachal Pradesh’s Indus River Basin. It has expanded by 178% from 36.49 hectares in 1989 to 101.30 hectares in 2022. This rapid growth exemplifies the effects of glacier retreat and warming climate in the Himalayas. The lake’s expansion increases the risk of GLOFs, threatening downstream communities and infrastructure. Its location in a sensitive ecological zone makes it a key site for monitoring climate change impacts and planning disaster risk reduction.

Why in news?

Ghepang Ghat is one of the glacial lakes selected for ground surveys due to its size increase and risk profile following the 2023 Himalayan GLOF incidents.

Glacial Isostatic Adjustment

Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) is the slow rebound of Earth’s crust after the melting of massive ice sheets from the last Ice Age. This process causes vertical land movement and redistributes mass, affecting Earth’s rotation and gravity field. GIA influences sea level measurements, seismic activity, and Earth’s moment of inertia. It typically occurs over thousands of years but still impacts modern geophysical observations. GIA is a key factor in the gradual lengthening of Earth’s day, alongside tidal friction from the Moon. The process is monitored using GPS and satellite data to understand its ongoing effects on Earth’s shape and rotation.

Why in news?

GIA is mentioned as a natural cause of Earth’s day lengthening, but recent studies show climate change effects are now surpassing its impact on Earth’s rotation speed.

Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI)

The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) was launched in 1988 by WHO, Rotary International, CDC, and UNICEF to eradicate polio worldwide. It has reduced polio cases by over 99.9%. The initiative uses mass immunization campaigns with oral and inactivated vaccines. Despite successes, polio remains endemic in Afghanistan and Pakistan due to conflict, misinformation, and access issues. The GPEI aims to interrupt wild poliovirus transmission globally but recently missed its 2024 eradication deadline. The program also monitors vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks and supports health infrastructure improvements in affected regions.

Why in news?

The GPEI is missing its 2024 target to eradicate polio due to reemergence of the virus in Afghanistan and Pakistan, driven by vaccine hesitancy and regional challenges.

Great Indian Bustard (GIB)

The Great Indian Bustard is a large, ground-dwelling bird endemic to India’s grasslands and semi-arid regions. It is a key indicator species for grassland ecosystem health. The population has declined from around 700 in the 1980s to less than 150 , primarily due to habitat loss, predation, and collisions with overhead power lines. The bird’s poor frontal vision and large size make it vulnerable to power line strikes, causing approximately 18 deaths annually in the Thar desert. Conservation efforts include captive breeding, habitat restoration, and artificial insemination research. Rajasthan holds the largest wild population.

Why in news?

The GIB is the focus of a renewed conservation program with funding approved to continue captive breeding, habitat surveys, and mitigation of power line threats through 2029.

Heat Dome

A heat dome is a meteorological phenomenon where a persistent high-pressure system traps warm air beneath it, creating a “lid” that prevents air from rising. This causes clear skies, increased solar radiation, and reduced evaporation, leading to intense and prolonged heat. Heat domes can cause severe heatwaves but are not the only cause of such events. They form when the jet stream’s wave pattern slows or becomes stationary, allowing the high-pressure system to remain fixed over an area for days or weeks. Their occurrence and intensity have increased due to rising global temperatures linked to climate change.

Why in news?

Heat domes are central to the recent record-breaking heatwave affecting the western United States, including California, where multiple cities hit unprecedented high temperatures in early July 2024.

Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA)

Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential effects of proposed developments on cultural heritage sites. It ensures that construction or infrastructure projects do not negatively affect the historical, spiritual, or architectural value of heritage locations. HIAs involve multidisciplinary studies, including archaeology, architecture, and environmental science, to recommend mitigation strategies. In India, HIAs are increasingly mandated for projects near UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the Mahabodhi Temple, to balance development and preservation.

Why in news?

HIA is relevant as the Mahabodhi Temple corridor project requires such assessments to protect the temple’s religious and cultural significance amid increased tourism and infrastructure development.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI)

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) is a severe form of bird flu caused by certain strains of the influenza A virus, notably H5N1 and H7N9. It affects poultry with high mortality rates and can spill over to wild birds and mammals, including humans. HPAI viruses mutate rapidly, increasing their pandemic potential. The disease impacts food security and economy due to poultry losses and trade restrictions. Surveillance and biosecurity measures are critical to controlling outbreaks. Rarely known, HPAI can infect dairy cattle, as reported in the USA, denoting its ability to cross species barriers beyond birds.

Why in news?

The recent HPAI outbreak in dairy cattle in the USA, with spillover to other mammals, was discussed at the July 2024 meeting on avian influenza control in India.

INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services)

INCOIS is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, based in Hyderabad. It provides ocean information and advisory services, including monsoon forecasts, tsunami warnings, and marine weather updates. INCOIS uses satellite data, ocean buoys, and climate models to monitor oceanic and atmospheric conditions. It plays a vital role in disaster management and supports sectors like fisheries and shipping. INCOIS issues seasonal and short-term forecasts, contributing to national preparedness against climate variability and extreme weather events.

Why in news?

INCOIS forecasted the continuation of ENSO Neutral conditions until September 2024, with a high probability of La Niña development from September to January, impacting India’s monsoon rainfall.

Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR)

The Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR) is a premier research institute under ICAR focused on millets’ improvement, cultivation, and processing. Located in Hyderabad, it develops high-yielding, drought-resistant millet varieties and promotes value addition technologies. IIMR also works on mechanization and post-harvest processing to boost millet production and consumption. It conducts state-wise analyses of millet cultivation trends and advises policymakers. IIMR’s research supports millet’s role in food security and nutrition, especially in semi-arid regions. The institute collaborates with Nutrihub-TBI to innovate and commercialize millet-based products.

Why in news?

IIMR analysis revealed shifts in millet cultivation areas across state of Indias, influencing production patterns and denoting the need for specialized processing machinery.

Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR-IISR)

The Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR-IISR), located in Kozhikode, Kerala, is a premier research institute under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It focuses on scientific research and development of spices such as black pepper, cardamom, nutmeg, and cinnamon. The institute develops technologies to improve spice crop productivity, pest management, and post-harvest processing. ICAR-IISR also promotes sustainable and integrated farming systems for spice cultivation. The institute organizes awards like the Spice Award to recognize excellence in spice cultivation and innovation.

Why in news?

ICAR-IISR presented the Spice Award 2024 to Sopna Kallingal for her achievements in sustainable spice farming and enterprise diversification.

International Big Cat Alliance

The International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) is a coalition of countries dedicated to the conservation of the world’s seven big cat species – tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, jaguar, puma, and cheetah. Established in 2019 and headquartered in India, the alliance focuses on combating poaching, illegal trade, and habitat loss. It promotes collaborative research, capacity building, and sharing best practices among member countries. IBCA supports community engagement and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. Its formation marks a unique multilateral effort solely focused on big cat conservation, involving countries from Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Why in news?

The International Big Cat Alliance was brought into light as part of India’s ongoing biodiversity conservation initiatives, mentioned by the environment minister during the launch of the Fauna of India Checklist Portal in July 2024.

International Coral Reef Society

Founded in 1980, the International Coral Reef Society (ICRS) is a global organization dedicated to the study and conservation of coral reefs. It brings together scientists, policymakers, and resource managers to exchange knowledge on coral reef ecosystems. The society organizes biennial International Coral Reef Symposia, which are major scientific conferences in the field. ICRS publishes the journal *Coral Reefs*, a leading peer-reviewed publication. The society promotes sustainable reef management and advocates for policy changes to address reef threats, including climate change and pollution. It also encourages public education and awareness about coral reef importance.

Why in news?

ICRS leaders recently called for a major collective rethink of coral conservation strategies amid record-breaking global coral bleaching events.

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)

The ITPGRFA is a multilateral treaty under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) that facilitates access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and ensures fair benefit-sharing. Established in 2001, it governs the exchange of plant seeds and genetic materials crucial for food security and agricultural research. The treaty includes a multilateral system for access and benefit-sharing and is exploring extensions to cover digital sequence information. It supports farmers’ rights, conservation, and sustainable use of plant genetic diversity worldwide.

Why in news?

The ITPGRFA is referenced as part of broader discussions on benefit-sharing mechanisms for digital genetic resources, alongside the CBD and WHO Pandemic Treaty negotiations.

Island Coastal Regulation Zone-IA (ICRZ-IA)

The Island Coastal Regulation Zone-IA (ICRZ-IA) is a designated ecologically sensitive coastal area where construction of ports and other major infrastructure is prohibited. It includes habitats like mangroves, coral reefs, mudflats, sand dunes, salt marshes, turtle and bird nesting grounds. Only limited eco-tourism activities, roads on stilts for defence, and public utilities with permits are allowed. The ICRZ-IA is defined under the ICRZ notification of 2019 to protect fragile island ecosystems from harmful development. This zoning is crucial for biodiversity conservation, especially in areas like the Great Nicobar Island, where rare species and indigenous communities reside.

Why in news?

The ICRZ-IA zoning is central to disputes over the Great Nicobar infrastructure project, specifically whether parts of the project fall within this protected zone, affecting environmental clearances.

Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Papum Pare district, Arunachal Pradesh. It is part of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and serves as a habitat for diverse flora and fauna, including many endemic and rare species. The sanctuary is characterized by tropical and subtropical forests and plays important role in conservation efforts in the region. Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary is less known compared to other sanctuaries but is for ongoing botanical and ecological research, especially for discovering new plant species like Phlogacanthus sudhansusekharii.

Why in news?

The sanctuary gained attention due to the discovery of the new plant species Phlogacanthus sudhansusekharii, emphasizing its ecological importance and the biodiversity it supports.

Jabiluka Uranium Deposit

The Jabiluka uranium deposit is one of the world’s largest high-grade uranium reserves, located within the Kakadu National Park region. Discovered in the early 1970s, it has been the subject of intense legal and environmental battles due to its location on Indigenous land. Mining leases at Jabiluka were held by Energy Resources of Australia, a Rio Tinto subsidiary, but are set to expire without renewal. Archaeologists found a buried collection of stone axes and tools near the site in 2017, dating tens of thousands of years old, underscoring the area’s deep cultural significance.

Why in news?

The Australian Prime Minister announced the banning of mining at Jabiluka and the park’s extension to protect the site permanently.

Jadarite

Jadarite is a rare lithium sodium borosilicate mineral (LiNaSiB3O7(OH)), first identified in 2004 in Serbia’s Jadar Valley. It is the first mineral discovered with a chemical composition matching the fictional kryptonite from Superman comics. Jadarite is because it contains lithium and boron, essential for battery production and other industrial uses. Its discovery helped initiate the Jadar lithium project. This mineral is unique to one location globally, making it geopolitically important for Europe’s lithium supply chain.

Why in news?

Jadarite’s extraction is central to the Rio Tinto project, which has sparked environmental protests in Serbia.

King Tides

King tides are naturally occurring, exceptionally high tides that happen when the Earth, moon, and sun align to produce the greatest tidal range. These tides cause temporary flooding of low-lying coastal areas, often lasting several days to months. King tides are more pronounced in certain regions and can exacerbate the effects of sea-level rise by increasing saltwater intrusion into freshwater habitats. In the Florida Keys, king tides have led to prolonged flooding, affecting plant and animal species by increasing soil salinity and reducing freshwater availability. They are a key indicator of future permanent sea-level rise impacts.

Why in news?

King tides in 2019 caused prolonged flooding in the Florida Keys, contributing to saltwater intrusion that harmed the habitat of the Key Largo tree cactus and other local species.

Kole Wetlands

The Kole wetlands are a Ramsar site located in Kerala, known for their rich biodiversity and agricultural importance. These wetlands are seasonal floodplains that support diverse flora and fauna, including migratory birds and insect species like flower flies. They play important role in water management and agriculture, especially rice cultivation. The wetlands are also a hotspot for scientific research due to their unique ecosystem dynamics and species diversity. Conservation efforts focus on balancing agricultural use with habitat protection to sustain both biodiversity and local livelihoods.

Why in news?

The Kole wetlands were the location where researchers discovered Mesembrius bengalensis, marking a new record for Kerala’s entomological diversity.

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Rajasthan, and forms part of the Aravalli Hills. It spans over 610.528 square kilometers and is known for its diverse flora and fauna, including leopards, wolves, and various deer species. The sanctuary surrounds the historic Kumbhalgarh Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is a critical habitat for tigers and other wildlife. Rarely known, the sanctuary is also home to several tribal communities who have traditionally lived in harmony with the forest ecosystem, practicing sustainable hunting and gathering. It is one of the largest protected areas in Rajasthan.

Why in news?

The sanctuary is in the spotlight as about 1,60,000 people are reported to be displaced from this area due to its designation as a tiger reserve under Project Tiger since 2021.

Kurichu Dam

The Kurichu Dam is a hydroelectric project on the Kurichu River in Bhutan, commissioned in 2001. It generates about 60 MW of electricity and regulates water flow into the Brahmaputra basin. Its water release patterns affect downstream rivers in Assam, including the Beki. Since 2004, excess water discharge from Kurichu Dam has contributed to increased flooding and riverbank erosion in Assam. The dam’s operations are crucial for flood management in the region but have also inadvertently intensified flood hazards due to altered flow regimes during monsoons.

Why in news?

The Kurichu Dam’s release of excess water has been linked to the increased flooding and erosion of the Beki River in Assam, worsening the displacement crisis and infrastructure damage.

Kuttanadan Duck

The Kuttanadan duck is a native duck breed from the Kuttanad region of Kerala, known for its adaptability to the unique backwater ecosystem. It thrives in the flooded paddy fields and wetlands, contributing to local livelihoods. The breed is prized for its meat, especially during festivals like Easter and Christmas in Kerala. Kuttanadan ducks have a strong resistance to waterborne diseases but remain vulnerable to avian influenza outbreaks. They are raised using traditional and scientific methods, with farmers adhering to government regulations. The breed plays a vital role in the region’s economy and cultural culinary practices.

Why in news?

The Kuttanadan duck population is severely affected by recurring avian flu outbreaks, leading to massive culling in Kerala’s backwaters and threatening farmers’ livelihoods.

Kyasannnur Forest Disease

Kyasannnur Forest Disease (KFD) is a tick-borne viral hemorrhagic fever endemic to forested regions in South India, including parts of Kerala. Caused by the Kyasanur Forest Disease virus, it leads to symptoms like fever, muscle pain, bleeding, and neurological issues. The disease is transmitted through infected ticks found on small mammals and monkeys. Vaccination is available for at-risk populations, but outbreaks still occur seasonally. KFD was first identified in the 1950s in Karnataka and has since spread to neighboring states. It is considered a public health concern in forest fringe areas.

Why in news?

Kyasannnur Forest Disease is being repeatedly reported in Kerala’s Kozhikode region, alongside other viral outbreaks, raising public health concerns.

Legal Amazon Region

The Legal Amazon Region is a socio-political designation covering nine Brazilian states, representing about 60% of Brazil’s territory and most of the Amazon rainforest within Brazil. It was created in 1953 to promote regional development and environmental management. The region is crucial for biodiversity, carbon storage, and indigenous populations. It has faced intense deforestation due to agriculture and logging. In 2023, deforestation in this region decreased by 50% compared to 2022, marking environmental milestone. The Legal Amazon plays a vital role in global climate regulation and conservation efforts.

Why in news?

The FAO report brought into light a 50% decrease in deforestation in Brazil’s Legal Amazon Region in 2023, signaling progress in combating forest loss in this critical area.

Lepidoptera

Lepidoptera is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths, characterized by their scaled wings. It contains over 180,000 species worldwide. Their wings are covered with tiny scales that create color and patterns. Lepidoptera undergo complete metamorphosis – egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis), and adult. They play key ecological roles as pollinators and prey. Lepidoptera species vary in wingbeat frequency, habitat, and behavior. Some species accumulate static electricity during flight, aiding in pollen transfer. This electrostatic trait may be adaptive, influencing pollination efficiency and evolutionary success in diverse environments.

Why in news?

Recent research shows Lepidoptera accumulate static electricity that helps attract pollen, enhancing their role as pollinators and suggesting evolutionary adaptation related to electrostatic charge.

Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary

Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary, established in 1927 in Brisbane, Queensland, is the world’s first dedicated koala sanctuary. It houses over 130 koalas and other native Australian wildlife. The sanctuary pioneered public koala interactions, including koala cuddling, which it recently discontinued. It operates as a conservation and education center, focusing on koala preservation amid declining wild populations. The sanctuary also participates in breeding programs and rehabilitation efforts. It is one of the few places where koalas are bred in captivity under strict regulations to support species recovery. It remains a major tourist attraction in Queensland.

Why in news?

Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary announced an end to koala cuddling experiences following visitor feedback and animal welfare concerns, shifting to close-up viewing instead.

Loss and Damage Fund

The Loss and Damage Fund is a financial mechanism established by the United Nations at COP27 in 2022 to assist vulnerable countries in recovering from climate change impacts such as droughts, floods, and rising sea levels. It addresses irreparable climate-driven damage that cannot be mitigated or adapted to. The fund is distinct from climate adaptation and mitigation funds and represents a recognition of the responsibility of developed nations for historical emissions. The fund’s governance structure includes a board overseeing its operations, with various countries participating in decision-making. Its detailed operational framework remains under negotiation.

Why in news?

The Philippines was chosen to host the board of the Loss and Damage Fund, marking a milestone in operationalizing this new UN climate finance mechanism.

Magellanic Penguins

Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) are medium-sized penguins native to the southern coasts of South America, primarily Argentina and Chile. They nest in burrows or under bushes and migrate north during winter. These penguins rely heavily on cold ocean currents for food, mainly fish and squid. Uncommonly, they are known to suffer mass die-offs during heat waves, as they are poorly adapted to extreme heat. Unlike Antarctic penguins, Magellanic Penguins are vulnerable to rising temperatures and habitat loss. Their population trends are indicators of ocean health and climate change effects in the Southern Hemisphere.

Why in news?

Hundreds of Magellanic Penguins died in Argentina in a single day due to extreme heat waves linked to climate change in 2024.

Makira Forest

The Makira Forest is one of Madagascar’s largest protected rainforest areas, covering approximately 372,470 hectares. It is a biodiversity hotspot with many endemic species, some still undescribed by science. Makira is characterized by dense tropical forest, diverse ecosystems, and a range of altitudes, supporting rare flora and fauna. It provides critical habitat for endangered species such as the silky sifaka lemur and various amphibians and reptiles. Conservation efforts focus on combating deforestation and habitat loss. The forest remains underexplored, making it a prime location for discovering lost or unknown species.

Why in news?

Makira Forest was the site of a recent expedition that rediscovered multiple lost species, including the giant millipede Spirostreptus sculptus, denoting its ecological importance.

Mangaladevi Wind Turbine

The Mangaladevi wind turbine is a 1-kilowatt installation within Periyar Tiger Reserve, specifically chosen for its location’s strong and consistent winds. It charges batteries that power real-time monitoring cameras and provide Wi-Fi connectivity in otherwise network-deprived forest sections. The turbine installation cost was ₹2 lakh. This hybrid renewable energy approach addresses the limitations of solar panels affected by the region’s foggy and rainy climate. The turbine also supports a small antenna that facilitates internet access for forest staff, enabling communication in isolated areas. Mangaladevi’s turbine represents one of the first uses of wind energy in Indian tiger reserves for conservation technology.

Why in news?

The turbine is part of a pioneering project to improve forest monitoring and internet connectivity in the Periyar Tiger Reserve’s remote areas.

Manjolai Estate

The Manjolai Estate is a tea plantation located within the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in Tamil Nadu, spanning approximately 3,388.78 hectares. Established in 1929 by the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Limited (BBTC) on leased land from the Singampatti family, the estate includes villages like Manjolai, Kakkachi, Nalumukku, Oothu, and Kuthiraivetti. It features public amenities such as post offices, schools, and health centers, and a tea factory in Oothu. BBTC’s lease expires in 2028, and the estate’s land was declared forest in 2018, leading to disputes involving workers’ rights and land ownership.

Why in news?

The Madurai bench of the Madras High Court is hearing petitions related to the estate’s workers following BBTC’s announcement to cease operations and hand over the land to the Tamil Nadu government.

Marine Ice-Sheet Instability (MISI)

Marine Ice-Sheet Instability refers to a feedback process where ice sheets resting on bedrock below sea level become unstable as their grounding lines retreat. This retreat allows warm ocean water to penetrate beneath the ice, accelerating melting and glacier flow into the ocean. MISI is a major concern for Antarctica and Greenland because it can cause rapid ice loss and contribute to sea-level rise. The instability is linked to the shape of the bedrock, where deeper slopes inland encourage faster retreat. It remains a critical uncertainty in climate models predicting future sea-level changes.

Why in news?

MISI was brought into light in recent scientific assessments and workshops as a key mechanism behind large-scale ice sheet deterioration and a target for proposed glacial interventions.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in High Seas

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are zones designated for conservation and sustainable management of marine ecosystems. Unlike national parks on land, MPAs in the high seas regulate activities such as fishing, mining, and shipping to reduce ecological damage. The concept was extended to international waters under the BBNJ treaty to protect biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. MPAs help mitigate overexploitation, pollution, and habitat loss. Potential MPAs have been identified globally, but the designation process involves international cooperation and scientific assessment. MPAs contribute to maintaining oceanic ecological balance and support marine species diversity and resilience.

Why in news?

The BBNJ treaty’s implementation includes establishing MPAs in the high seas to conserve marine biodiversity and regulate human activities in these international waters.

MIND Diet (Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay)

The MIND diet combines elements of the Mediterranean and DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diets, focusing on brain health. It emphasizes consumption of leafy greens, berries, nuts, olive oil, fish, and whole grains while limiting red meat, saturated fats, and sugars. Studies show adherence to the MIND diet is linked to slower cognitive decline and reduced risk of Alzheimer’s Disease. It targets reduction of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. The diet also promotes anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, supporting neuroplasticity and vascular health. It was developed by researchers at Rush University in Chicago.

Why in news?

Experts brought into light the MIND diet’s role in early lifestyle correction to slow Alzheimer’s progression as part of AIIMS’s research on early diagnosis and management of dementia.

National One Health Mission

The National One Health Mission is an integrated initiative launched by India to address health risks at the interface of humans, animals, plants, and the environment. It promotes a collaborative approach among multiple ministries including health, agriculture, and environment to prevent and control diseases. The mission institutionalizes the One Health approach, which recognizes the interconnectedness of ecosystem health and human health. It aims to improve pandemic preparedness, surveillance, and response systems. This mission is among the first in India to formally coordinate cross-sectoral disease control efforts under a unified framework.

Why in news?

The mission’s first executive committee meeting was chaired by Health Minister JP Nadda in July 2024, focusing on integrated disease control and pandemic preparedness.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC)

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) are climate action plans submitted by countries under the Paris Agreement, outlining voluntary targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Each NDC is unique, reflecting national circumstances and capabilities. NDCs are updated every five years to increase ambition. The term was first formalized in the 2015 Paris Agreement. NDCs include mitigation, adaptation, and financial support components. They serve as a global mechanism to track progress and encourage transparency. Countries report their progress through the UNFCCC’s Enhanced Transparency Framework. NDCs can also include sector-specific targets like energy, agriculture, and waste management.

Why in news?

South Africa and India’s updated NDCs and commitments to emission reductions are central to their climate policies discussed in the recent legislative and judicial developments.

Neem Oil-Coated Urea

Neem oil-coated urea is a variant of urea fertiliser treated with neem oil to slow nitrogen release, improving nitrogen use efficiency and reducing environmental pollution. Introduced in India in 2015, its MRP is fixed at Rs 5,628 per tonne. The coating helps inhibit nitrification, reducing nitrogen loss through leaching and volatilization. It also discourages urea diversion for non-agricultural uses due to neem’s bitter taste. Neem-coated urea is mandatory in India to promote sustainable agriculture and reduce fertiliser consumption. The government enforces strict price controls on it, similar to regular urea, to maintain affordability for farmers.

Why in news?

The text mentions neem oil-coated urea in the context of fertiliser pricing and subsidy policies amid political and economic considerations affecting the sector.

Nicobar Megapode

The Nicobar Megapode (Megapodius nicobariensis) is a rare bird species endemic to the Nicobar Islands. It is known for its unique nesting behavior, building large mounds of decaying vegetation to incubate its eggs using heat generated by decomposition. The species is ground-dwelling and shy, making it difficult to study. It is classified as Vulnerable due to habitat loss and human disturbance. The Nicobar Megapode plays important ecological role in seed dispersal and forest regeneration. Its population is threatened by deforestation, infrastructure projects, and invasive species. Conservation efforts are limited and complicated by restricted access to tribal lands.

Why in news?

The Nicobar Megapode faces threats from the proposed Great Nicobar Island development, which involves large-scale deforestation and habitat destruction.

Nino 3.4 Region

The Nino 3.4 region is a specific area in the central equatorial Pacific Ocean, spanning approximately 5°N to 5°S latitude and 170°W to 120°W longitude. Sea surface temperatures (SST) in this region are a critical indicator for monitoring ENSO phases. Warmer SSTs here signal El Niño, while cooler SSTs indicate La Niña. The region is closely monitored by meteorological agencies worldwide to predict global climate impacts. Variations in Nino 3.4 SSTs influence atmospheric circulation, affecting weather patterns such as monsoons, droughts, and hurricanes across continents.

Why in news?

Current temperature readings in the Nino 3.4 region suggest ENSO Neutral conditions with a tendency toward warming, delaying La Niña’s emergence in 2024.

Nipah Virus

Nipah virus is a zoonotic pathogen first identified in 1998 in Malaysia, transmitted from fruit bats to humans, often via intermediate hosts like pigs. It causes severe respiratory illness and encephalitis with a fatality rate up to 75%. Outbreaks have occurred mainly in South and Southeast Asia, with human-to-human transmission documented. Nipah virus is listed as a priority pathogen by WHO due to its epidemic potential and lack of approved treatments or vaccines. Its emergence is linked to deforestation and habitat encroachment, increasing bat-human contact. Surveillance and rapid response are critical to control its spread.

Why in news?

The UN report cites Nipah virus as an example of zoonotic diseases that have caused outbreaks and show the threat of emerging pathogens.

Non-Detriment Findings (NDFs)

Non-Detriment Findings (NDFs) are scientific assessments required under CITES to confirm that international trade in a species does not harm its survival in the wild. NDFs evaluate population status, harvest impacts, and management effectiveness. They guide export quotas and trade regulations. The Botanical Survey of India conducted a comprehensive NDF study on Aquilaria malaccensis, recommending restrictions on wild harvesting but allowing trade from plantations and community gardens. NDFs are essential yet often overlooked tools that balance conservation with sustainable use in global wildlife trade governance.

Why in news?

The NDF report by the Botanical Survey of India enabled India to justify a sustainable export quota for agarwood and avoid stricter trade restrictions under CITES.

Ocean Heat Content (OHC)

Ocean Heat Content (OHC) measures the total heat stored in ocean water, usually within the upper 2000 meters. It is important indicator of global warming as oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gases. Increasing OHC correlates with stronger and more frequent tropical storms and hurricanes because warmer water fuels storm intensity. OHC is measured using Argo floats and satellites. Unlike sea surface temperature, OHC accounts for heat stored deeper underwater, making it a more comprehensive metric for assessing climate change impacts on oceanic and atmospheric systems. OHC trends have shown record highs in recent years.

Why in news?

OHC has soared in the Atlantic, contributing to Hurricane Beryl’s unprecedented early Category 5 intensification in July 2024.

Oil Palm Plantations in Indonesia

Indonesia is the world’s largest producer of palm oil, accounting for over 50% of global supply. Oil palm plantations have expanded rapidly since the 1990s, often replacing tropical rainforests. This expansion causes deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity loss. The plantations typically involve monoculture cultivation of Elaeis guineensis, the oil palm tree. Environmental impacts include soil degradation, water pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. Despite economic benefits and employment, plantations have been linked to social conflicts with indigenous communities and wildlife displacement, including increased encounters between humans and large predators like reticulated pythons.

Why in news?

The growth of oil palm plantations in Indonesia is associated with forest loss and altered wildlife behavior, possibly increasing fatal python attacks in South Sulawesi.

Pacific Purple Sea Urchin

The Pacific purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) is a common herbivore in coastal waters, known for its role in controlling algae populations. In Japan, these urchins are implicated in the decline of seaweed forests due to overgrazing. Typically, wild Pacific purple urchins have only 2-3% edible gonads, making them less valuable commercially. However, when fed vegetables such as cabbage and Japanese mustard spinach in captivity, their edible parts can increase to 20% with a milder taste. This dietary intervention aims to enhance their market value and help control wild populations.

Why in news?

Research in Kanagawa is focused on improving the quality and taste of Pacific purple sea urchins through controlled feeding to counteract the negative impacts of overgrazing on seaweed beds.

Palau Pledge

The Palau Pledge is a voluntary environmental and cultural responsibility campaign launched in Palau, an island nation in the western Pacific Ocean. Visitors to Palau are asked to sign the pledge, committing to respect the environment, adhere to local laws, and support sustainable tourism practices. The initiative aims to protect Palau’s fragile marine ecosystems and cultural heritage from the negative impacts of overtourism. The pledge is part of Palau’s broader strategy to promote eco-friendly tourism and raise awareness about conservation. It is one of the first tourism pledges globally to link visitor behavior directly with environmental stewardship and cultural respect.

Why in news?

The Palau Pledge was mentioned as an example of advocacy campaigns promoting responsible tourism amid growing concerns about overtourism worldwide.

Pink Bollworm (PBW)

The pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) is a moth whose larvae burrow into cotton bolls, damaging lint quality by cutting and staining it, rendering it unusable. It primarily affects Bt cotton varieties and spreads through air, infected crop residues, and contaminated seeds. First detected in North India during 2017-18, it has since expanded across Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. The pest’s lifecycle and spread are influenced by residue management and seed health. Control methods include insecticide spraying and crop rotation. Preventive techniques disrupt mating via synthetic pheromones applied as a paste or via pheromone-dispensing thread knots.

Why in news?

The pink bollworm has caused decline in cotton cultivation area in northern India in 2024, prompting increased adoption of preventive pest management techniques.

Planetary Boundary Layer Height

The planetary boundary layer height (PBLH), also called mixing height, is the lowest part of the atmosphere directly influenced by the Earth’s surface. It typically extends from a few hundred meters to 2 kilometers above the ground. PBLH affects the dispersion and dilution of air pollutants; a higher PBLH allows pollutants to spread out more, reducing surface concentration. It varies diurnally and seasonally, influenced by solar heating, terrain, and weather. Measuring PBLH is crucial for air quality modeling and forecasting. It is often determined using radiosondes, lidar, or remote sensing techniques.

Why in news?

PBLH was used as an instrumental variable in a 2024 Indian study to isolate the impact of local air pollution on mortality by linking it to pollution dispersal without direct effects on deaths.

PM10 (Particulate Matter 10 microns or less)

PM10 refers to airborne particles with diameters of 10 micrometers or less, roughly one-fifth the width of a human hair. These particles can penetrate the respiratory system and cause health problems. Non-exhaust sources include tyre wear, brake wear, and road dust. Electric vehicles (EVs) tend to be heavier, potentially increasing PM10 emissions from tyre and brake wear, but studies show EVs often produce less PM10 than fossil fuel vehicles when accounting for all sources. PM10 is regulated globally due to its impact on air quality and human health, and monitoring stations measure its concentration to enforce pollution standards.

Why in news?

PM10 is mentioned regarding the environmental impact of electric vehicles, specifically how their increased weight might lead to higher particulate emissions compared to traditional cars.

Polar Jet Stream

The polar jet stream is a fast-flowing, narrow air current found in the upper atmosphere, typically between 7 to 12 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. It forms near the boundary between cold polar air and warmer mid-latitude air, flowing west to east. The jet stream influences weather patterns by steering storms and affecting temperature distributions. It is driven by temperature gradients and Earth’s rotation. Recently, Arctic warming has weakened the jet stream by reducing temperature differences, causing it to slow and meander, leading to prolonged weather events like heatwaves or cold spells.

Why in news?

The slowing polar jet stream is linked to stagnant warm weather and increased Arctic wildfires in 2024.

Polymetallic Nodules

Polymetallic nodules are rock concretions found on the deep ocean floor, typically potato-sized, composed mainly of manganese and iron oxides, with amounts of cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese. They form over millions of years through the precipitation of metals from seawater and sediment pore waters. Nodules grow slowly, about a few millimeters per million years. These nodules provide habitat for unique microbial and benthic communities. They are of commercial interest due to their metal content critical for electronics and battery manufacturing. Their extraction poses environmental risks to deep-sea ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles.

Why in news?

Polymetallic nodules were linked to the newly discovered abiotic production of oxygen (“dark oxygen”) on the deep seafloor, denoting their ecological role beyond mineral resources.

Potash Block

Potash refers to potassium-containing minerals used mainly as fertilizers to improve crop yields. India has limited potash reserves, making domestic production crucial for agriculture. Potash blocks are mined for potassium salts like sylvite and carnallite. Globally, Canada and Russia dominate potash production. Potash mining involves solution mining or conventional shaft mining. The mineral is key for soil nutrient balance and plant growth. India imports over 90% of its potash needs. Auctioning potash blocks domestically aims to reduce dependency on imports and boost agricultural sustainability.

Why in news?

One critical potash block in Jharkhand remains unauctioned by the state, prompting the Centre to plan auction intervention.

Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)

Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a rare, fatal brain infection caused by the amoeba Naegleria fowleri. It thrives in warm freshwater environments like lakes and poorly maintained swimming pools. Infection occurs when contaminated water enters the body through the nose, allowing the amoeba to reach the brain and destroy brain tissue. The disease progresses rapidly, causing symptoms such as headache, fever, nausea, and later confusion, hallucinations, and coma. Over 97% of cases are fatal, typically within 1 to 18 days. Diagnosis is difficult due to its rarity, and no standard treatment exists globally.

Why in news?

Kerala reported three recent deaths of children due to PAM, denoting the risks associated with warm freshwater bodies during summer and the need for heightened awareness and preventive measures.

Rat-hole Mining

Rat-hole mining is an illegal coal mining method practiced mainly in northeastern India, especially Meghalaya. It involves digging narrow vertical shafts, often less than a meter in diameter, to access shallow coal seams. Workers enter these confined, poorly ventilated tunnels to extract coal manually, using rudimentary tools. The practice is extremely hazardous, with frequent cave-ins, toxic gas exposure, and flooding. Despite a 2014 blanket ban by the National Green Tribunal (NGT), rat-hole mining persists due to economic dependence and weak enforcement. It also causes environmental degradation, including deforestation and water pollution. The method yields low-quality coal and is unscientific and unsafe.

Why in news?

Rat-hole mining continues illegally in Assam, Meghalaya, and other northeastern states despite the NGT ban, contributing to fatal accidents and environmental damage, with alleged political patronage complicating enforcement efforts.

Salal-Haimana Lithium Block

The Salal-Haimana Lithium block is located in Jammu and Kashmir and is one of India’s emerging sources of lithium, a critical mineral used in batteries for electric vehicles and energy storage. Lithium deposits here are found in hard rock form, unlike the more common brine deposits globally. This block is part of India’s strategic push to reduce dependence on lithium imports. The region’s challenging terrain and geopolitical sensitivity complicate exploration. Lithium mining in Jammu and Kashmir is relatively new, with limited commercial extraction so far. The block’s auction was canceled due to insufficient bidder interest, denoting nascent market dynamics.

Why in news?

The auction of the Salal-Haimana Lithium block was scrapped due to fewer than required bids, reflecting challenges in attracting investment despite government efforts to boost critical mineral production.

Sea Ice Extent

Sea ice extent measures the area of ocean covered by at least 15% sea ice. It is a critical indicator of polar climate health, especially in the Arctic and Antarctica. Sea ice extent fluctuates seasonally but long-term declines indicate warming trends. In June 2024, Antarctic sea ice extent was 12% below average, the second lowest on record after June 2023’s 16% deficit. Reduced sea ice affects ocean circulation, ecosystems, and global climate patterns. It also accelerates warming by reducing the reflective surface (albedo), causing more solar absorption by dark ocean waters.

Why in news?

Antarctic sea ice extent in June 2024 was below average, linked to record high temperatures and ongoing climate change impacts.

Slush

Slush is a mixture of water-saturated snow that forms when snow falls onto a water surface, creating a semi-solid layer. In Antarctica, it accounts for 57% of all surface meltwater on ice shelves, more than previously recognized. Unlike pure meltwater, slush absorbs 2.8 times more solar heat than ice or snow alone, accelerating melting processes. It reduces air content in ice shelves and contributes to the formation of meltwater ponds, which can induce ice shelf fracturing. Slush is more solid than liquid meltwater and does not directly cause hydrofracture but affects ice shelf stability and energy balance.

Why in news?

Slush was recently mapped across Antarctica using AI, revealing it holds most of the continent’s meltwater, important factor for understanding ice shelf stability and sea-level rise risks.

Small Grants Programme (SGP)

The Small Grants Programme (SGP) is a global initiative by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) that supports community-based projects addressing environmental issues. Since 1992, it has provided funding to grassroots organizations in over 125 countries, focusing on biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and sustainable livelihoods. SGP empowers local communities by promoting innovative, low-cost solutions with measurable environmental benefits. It operates through national implementing partners, like UNDP, facilitating local ownership and capacity building. The programme’s decentralized approach allows it to address unique local challenges while contributing to global environmental goals.

Why in news?

The artificial reef project in Rameshwaram is supported by the Small Grants Programme under the United Nations Development Programme.

Social Climate Fund

The Social Climate Fund is an EU financial mechanism designed to support member states in implementing climate policies fairly. It aims to protect low-income households from the economic impacts of climate measures, such as higher energy costs. Established under the European Green Deal framework, the fund has been criticized for its initially small size and limited reach. The 2024 EU Parliament discussions have emphasized expanding and strengthening the fund to ensure social cohesion and equitable climate action across the EU. It plays a key role in balancing environmental goals with social justice.

Why in news?

The Social Climate Fund was brought into light in 2024 EU Parliament debates as important tool to ensure socially just implementation of climate policies amid the Greens’ electoral losses and shifting political dynamics.

Soil Moisture Anomaly (SMA)

Soil Moisture Anomaly (SMA) refers to the deviation of soil moisture content from its historical average for a specific region and period. It is measured in millimeters and indicates either a moisture deficit (negative SMA) or surplus (positive SMA). SMA is crucial for assessing drought stress and flood risk, impacting crop yields and water resource management. The study used soil moisture data at a depth of 0-10 cm across India, comparing 2023 levels with averages from 2000-2005. SMA varies seasonally and regionally, influencing tailored agricultural and irrigation strategies in diverse climatic zones.

Why in news?

The 2024 study marks India’s 2023 soil moisture anomalies, showing 32.8% land under drought stress and 47.7% with wetter than average soil, affecting agriculture and water management policies.

Sukinda Valley

The Sukinda Valley in Odisha, is one of the world’s largest open-cast chromite ore mining areas. It produces nearly 97% of India’s chromite ore. The valley has faced severe environmental issues due to mining, notably chromium contamination in groundwater, which poses health risks like cancer and skin diseases. Despite mining benefits, the region struggles with pollution, affecting agriculture and drinking water. Chromium exists mainly in two forms here – trivalent chromium (less toxic) and hexavalent chromium (highly toxic). Cleanup efforts have been slow, with ongoing legal and environmental battles.

Why in news?

The National Green Tribunal ordered an investigation into chromium contamination in groundwater in Sukinda Valley, Odisha, following a complaint and a Joint Committee report confirming pollution at nine locations.

Tale Wildlife Sanctuary

Tale Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Arunachal Pradesh, within the Lower Subansiri district. It covers an area rich in biodiversity, particularly amphibians and other herpetofauna. The sanctuary lies in the Eastern Himalayas, part of a global biodiversity hotspot. It provides habitat for endemic and rare species, including the recently described Xenophrys apatani. The sanctuary’s protected status helps mitigate anthropogenic pressures, though ongoing conservation efforts are necessary to maintain its ecological integrity.

Why in news?

Tale Wildlife Sanctuary is the habitat of the newly identified horned frog species, Xenophrys apatani, emphasizing the area’s ecological significance in biodiversity conservation.

Tea Estates of Kerala

Kerala’s tea estates are primarily located in the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in southern India. These plantations contribute to the local economy and employ thousands. The estates are situated on steep slopes, making them vulnerable to landslides, especially during heavy monsoon rains. Soil erosion and deforestation increase this risk. The estates also support local flora and fauna but face challenges from climate change and extreme weather. Kerala’s tea industry dates back to the 19th century and is known for producing high-quality orthodox tea varieties favored domestically and internationally.

Why in news?

On July 30, 2024, landslides swept through tea estates and homes in Kerala, killing more than 50 people due to extreme monsoon rains and unstable terrain.

TRAFFIC

TRAFFIC is a global non-governmental organization specializing in wildlife trade monitoring and research. Established in 1976, it collaborates with conservation bodies like CITES and WWF to provide data on the legality and sustainability of wildlife commerce. TRAFFIC’s expertise includes tracking illegal trade routes, assessing species vulnerability, and supporting enforcement through evidence-based research. It produces reports that guide policy and regulatory decisions. TRAFFIC operates in over 50 countries and is instrumental in capacity-building efforts to improve compliance with international wildlife trade laws, particularly for species like rosewood that are vulnerable to over-exploitation.

Why in news?

TRAFFIC experts contributed data and research supporting CITES’ recent report on rosewood species trade, aiding sustainable management efforts announced in July 2024.

Ultra-Processed Foods

Ultra-processed foods are industrial formulations typically high in sugar, fat, salt, and additives, produced through multiple processing steps. They are linked to intensive agriculture and livestock farming, which negatively impact environmental sustainability. A 2020 review of 35,550 products by the top 20 global food and beverage companies found only 4-12% of sales in Brazil, China, and South Africa were healthier options. These foods are central to networks of interest groups promoting their industry, contributing to poor nutrition and increased non-communicable diseases globally.

Why in news?

The SOFI report brought into light ultra-processed foods’ role in worsening nutrition and environmental harm, underscoring the dominance of unhealthy products in major developing markets.

Umred Karhandla Wildlife Sanctuary

Umred Karhandla Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Maharashtra, covering about 322 square kilometers. It is known for its population of tigers, leopards, gaur, and sambar deer. Despite being centrally positioned among other protected areas in central India, its gaur population shows the highest genetic differentiation, indicating isolation. The sanctuary faces threats from habitat fragmentation and human activities. It acts as an important corridor linking multiple tiger reserves in the region. The sanctuary’s unique position makes it a critical site for studying genetic connectivity among large herbivores in fragmented landscapes.

Why in news?

The sanctuary was brought into light for its highly genetically differentiated gaur population in a recent study on genetic connectivity of large herbivores in central India.

White Category Industries

The white category classification for industries was introduced by the Central Pollution Control Board in 2016 during a re-categorisation based on pollution potential. Industries are scored on emissions, effluent discharge, hazardous waste generation, and resource consumption. White category industries are considered non-polluting or least polluting. Examples include wind and solar power projects, air cooler assembly, and bicycle assembly. These industries are proposed to be exempted from obtaining CTE and CTO permits, requiring only self-declaration to pollution control boards. This category simplifies environmental compliance and encourages cleaner industrial practices.

Why in news?

The environment ministry’s draft notifications propose exempting white category industries from prior permissions under pollution control laws, reflecting recent legal amendments.

World Heritage Fund

The World Heritage Fund was established in 1972 alongside the World Heritage Convention to provide financial support for the protection and conservation of cultural and natural heritage sites worldwide. It is funded by contributions from State Parties, voluntary donations, and income from investments. The fund supports emergency assistance, site conservation, training, and capacity-building projects. Its allocation is decided by the World Heritage Committee, which prioritizes sites based on urgency and significance. By 2024, the fund has supported over 1,000 projects globally, including restoration of ancient monuments and protection of endangered ecosystems.

Why in news?

The World Heritage Committee meeting in New Delhi will oversee the allocation of financial assistance from the World Heritage Fund for the next cycle of heritage preservation projects.

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)

The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established in 1916 and is the premier Indian organization for animal taxonomy and biodiversity research. It operates under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. ZSI has contributed to documenting India’s fauna, maintaining a rich collection of preserved specimens. It played a key role in discovering and cataloging thousands of species, including many new to science. ZSI scientists have published numerous faunal surveys and monographs. The institution also runs several regional centers across India, facilitating research in diverse ecological zones. Its latest project includes compiling a comprehensive fauna checklist of over 100,000 species recorded since the 1750s.

Why in news?

ZSI launched an online portal documenting over 100,000 animal species in India, a global first, marking its 109th foundation day in Kolkata, denoting recent discoveries and biodiversity research achievements.

Zoonotic Spillover

Zoonotic spillover is the process where pathogens transfer from non-human animals to humans. It requires close contact between species, often facilitated by environmental changes such as deforestation, urbanization, and wildlife trafficking. Spillovers can lead to outbreaks if the pathogen adapts to human hosts. The annual rate of spillover events is increasing by 5 to 8 percent. Factors like land-use changes and unsustainable agricultural practices increase spillover risk by disrupting ecosystems and increasing human-wildlife interactions. About spillover dynamics is crucial for predicting and preventing emerging infectious diseases.

Why in news?

The UN report warns that increased zoonotic spillovers driven by environmental changes could trigger another pandemic by 2030.

History (India / World) & Culture

1970 UNESCO Convention on Cultural Property

The 1970 UNESCO Convention is an international treaty aimed at preventing the illicit import, export, and transfer of ownership of cultural property. It encourages member states to take legal measures to protect cultural heritage and facilitates the return of stolen artifacts. The convention defines cultural property broadly, including archaeological objects, manuscripts, artworks, and religious items. It also promotes international cooperation and information exchange to combat trafficking. Over 140 countries are parties to the convention, which serves as the legal foundation for bilateral cultural property agreements like the one between the U.S. and India.

Why in news?

The U.S.-India Cultural Property Agreement signed in July 2024 is implemented under the framework of the 1970 UNESCO Convention to restrict trafficking in cultural property.

Abhaya Mudra

The abhaya mudra is a symbolic hand gesture showing an open palm facing outward, signifying fearlessness, protection, and peace. It is common across South Asian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. In Buddhism, it is especially linked to the walking Buddha images in Thailand and Laos. The gesture likely originated as a prehistoric universal human sign indicating goodwill or peace. A Buddhist legend recounts Buddha calming a rampaging elephant by displaying this mudra, symbolizing the absence of fear. It also parallels the Roman “magna manus” symbolizing power and peace.

Why in news?

Rahul Gandhi referenced the abhaya mudra in his Lok Sabha speech, linking it to the Congress party’s palm symbol to emphasize a message of fearlessness and unity across religions.

Ahom Dynasty

The Ahom dynasty ruled Assam and parts of Northeast India from 1228 to 1826 AD. Originating from the Tai people of South China, they established their first capital at Charaideo in 1253 under King Sukaphaa. The dynasty was known for its effective administration and military prowess, notably resisting Mughal invasions. Their kingdom stretched from modern-day Bangladesh to Burma at its peak. The Ahoms practiced burial rites instead of cremation, a rare custom in India. They left a lasting cultural legacy in Assam and are celebrated for uniting the Assamese people.

Why in news?

The Ahom dynasty’s heritage was brought into light during the 400th birth anniversary celebrations of Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, a celebrated folk hero.

Ancien Régime

The ancien régime refers to the socio-political system in France before the French Revolution, dominated by absolute monarchy and feudal privileges. It featured a rigid class structure – the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate). The monarchy, headed by King Louis XVI, faced financial crises due to military spending and unequal taxation heavily burdening peasants. Crop failures in the 1770s-80s worsened poverty, while Enlightenment ideas challenged its legitimacy. The ancien régime’s failure to reform led directly to revolutionary upheaval starting in 1789, symbolized by the storming of the Bastille, marking its collapse.

Why in news?

The term provides context for the causes of the French Revolution and the significance of Bastille Day, celebrated annually on July 14 as a symbol of overthrowing this old regime.

Basavanna

Basavanna was a 12th-century philosopher-saint and social reformer from Karnataka who founded the Lingayat faith. He led a radical anti-caste movement rejecting orthodox Hindu rituals and caste hierarchy, promoting a direct, personal devotion to Lord Shiva. Basavanna introduced the concept of Ishtalinga, a wearable symbol of Shiva, encouraging spiritual equality. He also established the Anubhava Mantapa, a spiritual parliament encouraging discourse among followers of all castes and genders. His teachings influenced the socio-religious landscape of Karnataka and continue to shape Lingayat identity and reformist traditions.

Why in news?

Basavanna is referenced as the founding figure of the Lingayat community, whose sub-caste dynamics and political aspirations are central to current reservation debates in Karnataka.

Battle of Asal Uttar

The Battle of Asal Uttar took place from September 8 to 10, 1965, near Khem Karan in Punjab, close to the India-Pakistan border. It was one of the largest tank battles of the 1965 war, involving Pakistan’s 1 Armoured Division and India’s 4th Mountain Division. Pakistan aimed to capture Khem Karan and the Beas River bridge to isolate Amritsar. The Indian defense, reinforced by the 2nd Armoured Brigade under Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh’s command, successfully halted the offensive, destroying 97 Pakistani Patton tanks and capturing an entire Pakistani armoured regiment.

Why in news?

The battle is brought into light due to its strategic importance and Hamid’s valor in destroying enemy tanks, which turned the tide in India’s favor during the 1965 war.

Bhojshala

Bhojshala is an 11th-century monument located in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh. Originally constructed during the Paramara dynasty period, it was a temple complex dedicated to Vagdevi and other Hindu deities. The site features long colonnades with 106 pillars and 82 pilasters, many carved with images of Hindu gods such as Ganesha, Brahma, and Narasimha. These carvings were later mutilated when the structure was converted into a mosque. Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions dating back to the 13th Century CE have been found here, including references to King Naravarman of the Paramara dynasty.

Why in news?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) submitted a scientific survey report on the Bhojshala complex to the Madhya Pradesh High Court, confirming its origins as a temple and detailing its conversion into a mosque.

Calcutta Flag

The Calcutta Flag was an early version of the Indian independence flag, first raised by Bhikaji Cama in 1907 at the International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart, Germany. It featured three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, and red with symbols including the sun, moon, and stars. This flag was one of the first to symbolize Indian nationalism abroad. It inspired later designs of the Indian National Flag. The flag was never officially adopted but remains an important symbol of the early freedom struggle and international advocacy for India’s independence.

Why in news?

Referenced as a precursor to the National Flag adopted by the Constituent Assembly in 1947.

Charaideo Moidam

Charaideo Moidam is an archaeological site in Assam, known for its ancient burial mounds or maidams belonging to the Ahom dynasty, which ruled Assam from the 13th to the 19th century. These maidams are dome-shaped tumuli that served as royal tombs and are often compared to the Egyptian pyramids for their cultural significance. The site reflects the unique burial customs and funerary architecture of the Ahom kingdom, including elaborate brick structures and burial chambers. It provides important vital information about the region’s medieval history and Ahom socio-political organization.

Why in news?

Charaideo Moidam was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in July 2024, recognizing its archaeological and historical significance.

Kalpathayam

Kalpathayam is a lesser-known megalithic site in Kasaragod district, Kerala, consisting of rock-cut chambers similar to Muniyara. These chambers are believed to be ancient burial or ritual sites from the Megalithic period, approximately 1,800 years old. The site is characterized by laterite stone construction with distinct door carvings and underground steps leading to the chambers. Kalpathayam’s name is derived from local traditions and is part of a cluster of megalithic sites that provide vital information about prehistoric cultures in South India. The site remains understudied and poorly protected.

Why in news?

Kalpathayam is mentioned as one of the important megalithic sites alongside the newly discovered chambers in Karinthalam, Kerala.

Kharbuza Mahal

The Kharbuza Mahal is the tomb of Begum Bilqis, wife of Shah Shuja, son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, located in Burhanpur. It features a dome and stands on a raised fluted circular plinth. Constructed from stone and plastered with shell mortar, the tomb is decorated with paintings. The name “Kharbuza” means “melon” in Hindi/Urdu, likely referencing the dome’s shape. Begum Bilqis died giving birth to her daughter and was buried here. The tomb is part of the group of ancient monuments protected under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904.

Why in news?

The Madhya Pradesh High Court recently ruled that Kharbuza Mahal is not Waqf Board property but an ancient monument under ASI guardianship.

Lachit Borphukan

Lachit Borphukan (1622–1672) was a celebrated Ahom general known for his leadership during the 1671 Battle of Saraighat against the Mughal Empire. He is revered for his military strategy and valor, which preserved Ahom sovereignty in Assam. Lachit’s legacy is commemorated annually on Lachit Diwas, celebrating his birth and contributions. His 400th birth anniversary was marked in 2023 with national recognition, including praise from Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Lachit is a symbol of Assamese pride and resistance, embodying justice and visionary leadership. His prominence has grown amid contemporary nationalist discourse in India.

Why in news?

Lachit Borphukan’s 400th birth anniversary was celebrated in November 2023, gaining renewed attention as a folk hero and symbol of Assamese identity.

Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA)

The Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) was an Indian law enacted in 1971 that allowed preventive detention and curtailment of civil liberties to maintain internal security. Widely used during the Emergency (1975-77), it enabled the government to arrest political opponents without trial. Prithipal Singh Randhawa was imprisoned under MISA for 19 months due to his anti-establishment activities with PSU. The act was repealed in 1978 following the Emergency’s end. MISA is historically for its role in suppressing dissent and is often cited as a symbol of authoritarianism in modern Indian political history.

Why in news?

Randhawa’s 19-month imprisonment under MISA during the Emergency is mentioned, denoting the political repression faced by student activists like him.

Mangarh Massacre

The Mangarh massacre occurred on November 17, 1913, when British forces killed hundreds of Bhil tribals in the hills of Mangarh on the Rajasthan-Gujarat border. This event predates the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by six years and is sometimes called the Adivasi Jallianwala. The massacre was a response to tribal resistance and demands for rights led by Govind Guru. It is historical event in tribal resistance against colonial rule but is lesser-known nationally compared to Jallianwala Bagh.

Why in news?

The recent Bhil tribal rally at Mangarh Dham commemorated the massacre’s centenary significance while renewing calls for a separate Bhil state.

Manipuri Martial Arts

Manipuri martial arts, also known as Thang-Ta, is a traditional combat sport from Manipur. It combines armed and unarmed techniques, focusing on sword and spear fighting. The art is deeply connected to the region’s cultural and religious practices, often performed during festivals. It emphasizes fluid movements, agility, and spiritual discipline. Thang-Ta practitioners use wooden or metal weapons and practice forms called “sarit-sarit.” The martial art was nearly extinct but revived in the late 20th century. It is recognized by the Government of India as a cultural heritage. It is lesser-known outside northeastern India.

Why in news?

Manu Bhaker, before focusing on shooting, excelled in Manipuri martial arts, denoting her diverse sports background contributing to her Olympic success.

Megalithic Laterite Chambers

Megalithic laterite chambers are ancient rock-cut structures carved from laterite stone, a reddish soil rich in iron and aluminum. These chambers date back approximately 1,800 years and are associated with the Megalithic culture, known for burial and ritualistic purposes. Typically, these chambers feature unique architectural elements like carved doors and small holes in the door slabs, possibly for ventilation or ritual access. They often contain earthen vessels and other artifacts inside. Laterite, due to its porous nature, is easier to carve but hardens on exposure, preserving such structures for centuries in tropical climates.

Why in news?

Two centuries-old Megalithic laterite chambers were discovered in Kolamkulam, Karinthalam village, Kerala, after a tree fell, attracting archaeological attention.

National Maritime Heritage Complex, Lothal

The National Maritime Heritage Complex is an under-construction museum and cultural complex located in Lothal, Gujarat, dedicated to India’s maritime history. Lothal is an ancient Harappan port city dating back to 2400 BCE, known for its dockyard and maritime trade. The complex aims to preserve and showcase India’s rich seafaring traditions, including traditional boats like the chhot. Once completed, it will feature permanent displays, models, and replicas of historic boats and marine artifacts, serving as a major center for maritime research and tourism.

Why in news?

The recreated chhot boat will be permanently displayed at the National Maritime Heritage Complex after spending two months at Kolkata port.

Santhal Hul

The Santhal Hul was tribal uprising in 1855 led by the Murmu brothers—Sidho, Kanho, Chand, and Bhairav—and sisters Phulo and Jhano. It was a revolt against British colonial rule and exploitative local landlords, zamindars, and moneylenders, collectively called ‘diku’. The Santhals, displaced to the region called Damin-i-Koh, faced land grabs and bonded labor known as kamioti and harwahi. The rebellion lasted six months, resulting in over 15,000 Santhal deaths and destruction of 10,000 villages. It influenced the creation of land-protective laws for Adivasis.

Why in news?

July 2024 marks the 169th anniversary of the Santhal Hul uprising, commemorating one of the earliest peasant revolts against British colonial oppression in India.

Santiniketan World Heritage Site

Santiniketan, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2023, is located in West Bengal. It was founded by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore as an experimental school and university focused on arts, culture, and education. The site embodies Tagore’s vision of blending Indian tradition with global cultural exchange. It includes historic buildings, open-air classrooms, and expansive natural landscapes. Santiniketan’s inscription marks its cultural significance as a center for modern Indian art and education reform. It is one of the twelve sites added to India’s World Heritage list in the past decade.

Why in news?

Santiniketan was recently inscribed on the World Heritage List during the 45th WHC session, exemplifying India’s expanding cultural heritage portfolio ahead of the 46th session hosted in India.

Yamnaya People

The Yamnaya people were a Bronze Age culture originating from the Pontic-Caspian steppe (present-day Ukraine and Russia) around 3300–2600 BCE. Known for their pastoral lifestyle, horse domestication, and burial mounds called kurgans, they are considered key ancestors of many modern Europeans. The Yamnaya migration into Northern and Western Europe replaced earlier Neolithic populations, contributing to the genetic and cultural makeup of the region. Their movement is linked to the spread of Indo-European languages. Archaeogenetic studies have shown a substantial genetic turnover in Europe coinciding with their arrival.

Why in news?

The Yamnaya people replaced Neolithic farming populations in Northern Europe after plague-induced declines, shaping the ancestry of modern Northern Europeans.

Science & Technology

Advance Ultra Supercritical (AUSC) Technology

The Advance Ultra Supercritical (AUSC) technology is an indigenously developed thermal power generation method that operates at steam temperatures of 710-720°C and pressures of 300 Bar. It achieves an efficiency of over 46%, higher than traditional subcritical (38%) and supercritical plants (41-42%). This technology reduces coal consumption and carbon dioxide emissions by approximately 11% compared to supercritical plants. AUSC technology was developed collaboratively by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, NTPC, and BHEL. The 800 MW demonstration plant will be India’s first full-scale commercial AUSC plant, located at the Sipat power station in Chhattisgarh.

Why in news?

India announced the setting up of the first 800 MW AUSC thermal power plant by NTPC and BHEL, marking step in indigenous high-efficiency coal power technology development.

Aedes mascarensis

Aedes mascarensis is a mosquito species native to the Indian Ocean region, particularly islands like Mauritius and Réunion. It is less studied compared to Aedes aegypti but is closely related and capable of hybridizing with it. This species has distinct genetic traits that contribute to reproductive incompatibility when crossed with Aedes aegypti, leading to disrupted sex determination in hybrids. Unlike Aedes aegypti, Aedes mascarensis is not a major vector for human diseases but plays important role in understanding mosquito genetics and population control strategies through hybridization studies.

Why in news?

Aedes mascarensis is in the news due to a study on hybridization with Aedes aegypti, which disrupts sex determination pathways and may help develop new mosquito control methods.

Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE) in Dengue

Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE) is a phenomenon where antibodies from a previous dengue infection enhance the severity of a subsequent infection by a different dengue serotype. Instead of neutralizing the virus, these antibodies facilitate viral entry into host cells, increasing viral replication and disease severity. ADE is a key challenge in dengue vaccine development. Dengue has four major serotypes (Denv-1 to Denv-4), and immunity to one does not protect against others, often worsening subsequent infections. ADE is also studied in other viruses like Zika and coronaviruses, but its role outside dengue remains unclear.

Why in news?

ADE is in the study exploring cross-reactivity between dengue antibodies and coronaviruses, raising questions about protective versus harmful immune responses in co-endemic regions.

Anusandhan National Research Fund (ANRF)

The ANRF is a newly announced fund dedicated to basic research and prototype development across India. It aims to create a professional, coordinated research framework that promotes interdisciplinary collaboration among universities, colleges, and research institutions. The fund will encourage private sector participation in research and innovation at a commercial scale with a financing pool of Rs 1 lakh crore. This initiative is designed to nurture a culture of research and development, ensuring sustained growth in scientific innovation and technology creation across the country.

Why in news?

The government announced the operationalisation of the ANRF in the Union Budget 2024 to boost research infrastructure and private sector-driven innovation.

APEP Mission

The APEP (Atmospheric Photochemistry Experiment) mission studies variations in Earth’s upper atmosphere, focusing on electric and magnetic fields, temperature, density, and atmospheric responses, especially during solar eclipses. It provides detailed measurements of how solar radiation and atmospheric processes influence ionospheric conditions. APEP helps scientists understand transient phenomena and the coupling between solar events and Earth’s atmosphere. The mission complements other satellite observations by focusing on photochemical reactions and their effects on ionospheric composition and behavior.

Why in news?

APEP is mentioned as part of ongoing NASA efforts to understand ionospheric variations following GOLD’s recent unexpected findings.

Ariel

Ariel is one of Uranus’s largest moons, notable for its bright, icy surface marked by deep canyons and ridges. It is primarily composed of water ice and rock. Ariel’s surface contains frozen carbon dioxide (CO2), which is unusual given its distance from the Sun, where CO2 should vaporize. Recent observations by the James Webb Space Telescope suggest Ariel may have a subsurface liquid ocean beneath its icy crust, potentially supplying CO2 to the surface through cracks. Signs of carbonite minerals, formed by water-rock interactions, support this ocean hypothesis. Ariel’s geological activity may be driven by tidal heating.

Why in news?

NASA’s JWST reported evidence of a buried liquid ocean on Ariel, explaining the presence of surface CO2 ice and carbonite minerals.

Atacama Large Millimetre/Submillimetre Array (ALMA)

ALMA is an astronomical interferometer of 66 high-precision antennas located in the Atacama Desert, Chile, operating at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. It studies cold universe components like molecular gas and dust, crucial for star formation and galaxy evolution. ALMA’s high resolution and sensitivity make it ideal for observing distant galaxies and their interstellar medium. It can detect cold gas clouds and reveal internal motions within galaxies. ALMA is a collaboration between Europe, North America, East Asia, and Chile, and it has revolutionized millimeter astronomy since its full operation began in 2013.

Why in news?

ALMA data was combined with ESO’s Very Large Telescope observations to detect cold gas and organized warm gas motion in PJ0116-24, evidencing rapid star formation without galaxy mergers.

Barycenter

The barycenter is the center of mass around which two or more bodies orbit due to mutual gravitational attraction. In the Solar System, it is the point where the combined mass of the Sun and planets balances. The barycenter can lie inside or outside the Sun’s surface depending on the positions and masses of planets, especially massive ones like Jupiter and Saturn. It is not fixed and moves as planets orbit. This concept applies universally, including binary stars and exoplanet systems. The barycenter’s position is crucial for precise calculations of orbital mechanics and detecting exoplanets via stellar wobble.

Why in news?

The barycenter is brought into light as the more accurate focal point of Earth’s orbit, rather than the Sun’s center, due to gravitational influences from giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn occasionally shifting it outside the Sun’s surface.

Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMRs)

Bharat Small Modular Reactors are an emerging nuclear technology under design at the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) in Mumbai. BSMRs represent India’s effort to develop factory-made, easily assembled reactors similar to global Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). They are intended to complement BSRs by offering more advanced, modular nuclear power solutions that can be rapidly deployed. BSMRs focus on cleaner energy production and aim to diversify India’s energy mix. The research emphasizes safety, efficiency, and integration with the power grid, but commercial deployment is still years away.

Why in news?

BSMRs were brought into light in Budget 2024 as part of India’s clean energy strategy and nuclear research initiatives, signaling future advancements beyond current reactor models.

Bharat Small Reactor (BSR)

The Bharat Small Reactor is an Indian initiative to convert an existing 220 MW reactor at the Madras Atomic Power Station into a small nuclear power unit with enhanced safety features. Unlike generic SMRs, the BSR is a re-engineered version of a proven reactor design, aiming to validate smaller, safer nuclear units for industrial use. It targets industries like steelmaking that require captive power and seek decarbonization. The BSR project represents India’s effort to innovate within existing infrastructure and reduce reliance on large-scale nuclear plants with high cost and time overruns.

Why in news?

The BSR is undergoing validation after repairs, signaling India’s push towards safer, localized nuclear power solutions for industrial decarbonization.

Bifacial Photovoltaic Power Modules

Bifacial photovoltaic power modules are solar panels that capture sunlight on both their front and back sides, increasing energy generation efficiency by up to 15-20% compared to traditional monofacial panels. They use transparent back sheets or dual glass layers to allow light reflection from surfaces beneath the panel. These modules perform better in environments with high albedo surfaces like sand, snow, or white rooftops. Bifacial technology reduces the levelized cost of electricity and enhances durability. They have gained traction in large-scale solar farms and are part of efforts to diversify and localize solar supply chains, especially in countries like India.

Why in news?

The new solar power plant in Gujarat will use locally produced bifacial photovoltaic power modules to support Indian manufacturers and diversify the supply chain.

Bistatic Radar

Bistatic radar is a radar system where the transmitter and receiver are separated by a distance, unlike monostatic radar where both are co-located. NASA’s Cassini spacecraft used bistatic radar during flybys of Titan to send radio waves to Titan’s surface, which then reflected toward Earth-based antennas. This method provided richer data on surface composition and roughness than monostatic radar. Bistatic radar helped distinguish between methane-rich and ethane-rich areas in Titan’s seas and detect surface ripples and tidal currents. Cassini’s bistatic radar observations in 2014 and 2016 represent one of the last major untapped datasets from the mission.

Why in news?

Cassini’s bistatic radar data is being analyzed to reveal new vital information about Titan’s seas and surface features, offering a more detailed understanding of its hydrocarbon hydrology.

Bistatic Radar Technique

Bistatic radar involves transmitting a radio signal from one location and receiving the reflected signal at a different location. Cassini used this technique during flybys of Titan in 2014 and 2016, aiming a radio beam at Titan’s surface and receiving the reflection on Earth. This method yields richer data on surface composition and roughness than traditional monostatic radar, which sends and receives signals at the same location. Bistatic radar helped reveal details about Titan’s seas and shorelines, including surface ripples and tidal currents, by analyzing how the radar signals scattered from liquid hydrocarbons and solid terrain.

Why in news?

Cassini’s bistatic radar data from Titan is now being fully analyzed, offering unprecedented detail on the moon’s hydrocarbon seas and surface characteristics.

Calcium Carbonate Laser Dating

Calcium carbonate laser dating is a scientific technique used to determine the minimum age of rock art by analyzing the calcium carbonate crystals that form naturally on top of paintings. This method uses lasers to measure isotopic compositions, providing more precise and reliable dates compared to traditional radiocarbon dating. It is particularly useful for dating paintings older than 40,000 years, where organic pigments are absent or degraded. The technique was successfully applied to Sulawesi cave paintings, establishing new age records and revolutionizing the field of archaeological rock art dating worldwide.

Why in news?

This new laser dating method was used to date the Leang Karampuang cave paintings, confirming their age at over 51,200 years and revising the timeline of early human artistic activity.

Carbon Fiber-Only Passenger Train

The carbon fiber-only passenger train is the first of its kind globally, constructed entirely from carbon fiber composites. Carbon fiber is a lightweight, high-strength material commonly used in aerospace and automotive industries but rarely in rail vehicles due to cost and manufacturing challenges. This train reduces weight by margin compared to traditional steel trains, leading to approximately 7% lower energy consumption. It achieves a top speed of 87 mph and contributes to reduced pollution and noise. The use of carbon fiber enhances durability and corrosion resistance, making it a sustainable innovation in rail transport.

Why in news?

China introduced the first passenger train made entirely of carbon fiber, marking step in sustainable high-speed rail technology.

Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT)

The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is an Government of India-owned telecom R&D center established in 1984. It focuses on developing indigenous telecom technologies to reduce dependence on foreign equipment. C-DOT pioneered the design of digital switching systems for rural India. It has contributed to several telecom innovations, including rural telephony solutions and broadband access technologies. C-DOT operates under the Department of Telecommunications and plays a key role in national telecom security and self-reliance. It collaborates with academic institutions and startups to accelerate technology development and commercialization in India’s telecom sector, especially for emerging technologies like 6G.

Why in news?

C-DOT signed an MoU with IIT Roorkee and IIT Mandi to develop ‘Cell-Free’ 6G Access Points as part of India’s push to develop indigenous 6G technology and support telecom R&D under the Telecom Technology Development Fund scheme.

CERT-In

CERT-In stands for the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team, a government agency under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. It is responsible for handling cybersecurity threats and incidents in India, including phishing, hacking, and malware attacks. Established in 2004, CERT-In issues advisories, conducts vulnerability assessments, and collaborates internationally to strengthen cyber defense. It also provides guidelines on cyber hygiene and incident response. CERT-In maintains a national database of cybersecurity incidents and helps organizations recover from cyber-attacks by offering technical support and mitigation strategies. It plays important role in India’s cyber resilience framework.

Why in news?

CERT-In issued an advisory warning users about phishing attacks exploiting the global outage caused by a faulty CrowdStrike Falcon Sensor update.

Chandipura Virus

The Chandipura virus is a member of the Vesiculovirus genus in the family Rhabdoviridae, first isolated in 1965 from blood samples in Chandipura village near Nagpur, Maharashtra. It causes acute encephalitis, primarily affecting children under 15. The virus is transmitted mainly by female Phlebotomine sandflies, with experimental evidence suggesting Aedes aegypti mosquitoes can also transmit it, though no natural isolation from mosquitoes has been reported. Symptoms include rapid fever onset, vomiting, altered sensorium, convulsions, and neurological deficits. There is no specific antiviral treatment or vaccine; management focuses on supportive care and prevention through vector control.

Why in news?

A recent outbreak in Gujarat has caused 15 deaths and 29 reported cases, prompting extensive screening and preventive measures by health authorities.

CHAPEEA Project

The CHAPEEA project is a NASA initiative aimed at studying human adaptation to long-duration space missions, particularly to Mars. It involves constructing habitats like Mars Dune Alpha and conducting multi-month simulations with volunteer crews. The project evaluates challenges such as isolation, resource management, nutrition, psychological effects, and communication delays caused by the distance between Mars and Earth. CHAPEEA plans multiple missions, with the first lasting 378 days, and future missions scheduled for 2025 and 2027. The data collected informs NASA’s strategy for sending humans to Mars in the 2030s.

Why in news?

The CHAPEEA project was brought into light due to the successful completion of its first 378-day Mars simulation mission, advancing NASA’s understanding of human endurance and mission planning.

Cheyava Falls

Cheyava Falls is the name given to a Martian rock studied by NASA’s Perseverance rover. It is named after the highest waterfall in the Grand Canyon, located in Arizona, USA. The name “Cheyava” comes from the Hopi language, meaning “intermittent waters,” fitting for a now-dry river channel on Mars. This rock contains organic compounds and features resembling potential biosignatures, such as veins of calcium sulfate deposited by ancient flowing water. It is part of an ancient river delta in Jezero Crater, a key exploration site for evidence of past microbial life on Mars.

Why in news?

Cheyava Falls rock is under study for potential biosignatures by NASA’s Perseverance rover, which recently drilled and collected a sample for future return to Earth to investigate possible past life on Mars.

China AIGC Industrial Alliance

The China AIGC Industrial Alliance is a Chinese industry group focused on AI-generated content (AIGC), which involves AI creating text, images, audio, and video. The alliance promotes collaboration among Chinese companies and research institutions to advance generative AI technologies. It supports industrial application and service design, areas where China holds competitive advantages. The alliance plays a role in policy advocacy, standard-setting, and encouraging innovation in generative AI. Ni Kaomeng, an initiator of the alliance, has brought into light China’s strength in applying generative AI in practical and service-oriented contexts.

Why in news?

The alliance was cited in reports comparing China and the US in generative AI, emphasizing China’s leadership in industrial application amid increasing geopolitical tensions affecting AI technology access.

CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center)

CIMMYT, based in Mexico, is a global research institution focused on improving maize and wheat crops through breeding and sustainable agriculture. It played important role in the Green Revolution by developing high-yielding varieties. CIMMYT has recently established a maize doubled haploid (DH) facility in Kunigal, Karnataka, producing 100% homozygous inbred lines in just two cropping cycles, accelerating breeding programs. The facility produced 29,622 DH lines in 2023, including varieties tolerant to drought, heat, water-logging, and resistant to pests like fall armyworm and maize lethal necrosis. CIMMYT shares improved lines with public and private seed companies worldwide.

Why in news?

CIMMYT’s new DH facility in Karnataka is advancing maize breeding in India, producing genetically pure lines that improve hybrid maize yields and resilience, supporting the country’s growing maize production and ethanol industry.

Circadian Rhythms

Circadian rhythms are natural, internal processes that regulate the sleep-wake cycle roughly every 24 hours. They are influenced primarily by light exposure, which helps synchronize the body’s internal clock to the environment. In children, these rhythms are strong but highly sensitive to evening light, especially blue light from screens. Disruption can delay sleep onset and affect overall health. These rhythms also regulate hormone release, body temperature, and other vital functions. Artificial lighting, including street lights and device screens, can confuse the circadian system, leading to poor sleep quality and increased health risks over time.

Why in news?

Circadian rhythms are discussed in relation to how evening light from technology disrupts children’s sleep patterns, affecting their health and development.

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) Photovoltaic Cells

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) is a thin-film solar technology composed of copper, indium, gallium, and selenium. It offers high absorption efficiency and flexibility in application, including on curved surfaces. CIGS cells have a lower carbon footprint than crystalline silicon but higher than CdTe. The technology allows for better performance under low light and high temperatures. Manufacturing involves rare elements like indium and gallium, which are limited in supply. CIGS modules are less commercially widespread but are a promising option for sustainable solar energy due to their balance of efficiency and environmental impact.

Why in news?

CIGS technology was ranked second in environmental sustainability after CdTe in the IIT Mandi solar technology life-cycle assessment study in India.

COVID-19 FLiRT Variant

The FLiRT variant is a recent strain of COVID-19 responsible for surge in cases in the UK and US. It accounts for over 40% of COVID cases in the UK and 69% in the US. This variant causes symptoms closely resembling hay fever, such as swollen nostrils and productive coughs, complicating diagnosis. It spreads easily and has led to increased hospitalizations. The name “FLiRT” is an acronym based on its genetic mutations but is less widely known than variants like Delta or Omicron. Research on its long-term effects is ongoing.

Why in news?

The FLiRT variant is driving a rise in COVID-19 cases and hospital admissions in the UK and US as of late June 2024, with symptoms often confused with hay fever.

Crispr-Cas9

Crispr-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome editing tool developed in 2012 that allows precise, cost-effective modification of DNA sequences. It uses a guide RNA to target specific DNA sites, where the Cas9 enzyme makes cuts to enable gene editing. Crispr technology is widely accessible, even in high school labs, and has been used on the International Space Station to study gene editing effects in microgravity. It paved the way for advanced techniques like base and prime editing, which allow even finer DNA alterations. Crispr has applications in medicine, agriculture, and potentially enabling human adaptation for space environments.

Why in news?

Crispr-Cas9 is brought into light as the foundational genome editing technology enabling advanced gene edits for space travel, with its use expanding to space-based experiments and future human adaptation strategies.

Cryogenic Engine (C32 Stage)

The C32 cryogenic engine stage is a key component of ISRO’s human-rated launch vehicle for the Gaganyaan mission. Cryogenic engines use super-cooled liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants, providing high efficiency and thrust. The C32 stage is designed to be human-rated, meaning it meets strict safety and reliability standards for crewed missions. It is nearing completion and will be integrated with other propulsion stages. Cryogenic technology is complex due to extreme temperatures and requires advanced materials and testing. ISRO’s successful development of cryogenic engines marks milestone in India’s space capabilities.

Why in news?

The C32 cryogenic engine stage is nearing completion, a critical step towards the launch vehicle’s readiness for the upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight mission.

Dark Matter Halo

A dark matter halo is a theoretical, roughly spherical region of dark matter that envelops galaxies and galaxy clusters, extending beyond their visible components. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together. Dark matter halos are invisible but inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and galaxy rotation curves. Their density and distribution influence galaxy formation and dynamics. Recent models suggest that interactions between dark matter particles within these halos can facilitate processes like the merging of supermassive black holes by altering gravitational dynamics, a concept explored in recent astrophysical research.

Why in news?

Dark matter halos are implicated in new findings where their particle interactions help solve the final parsec problem, enabling supermassive black hole mergers.

Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent

The _Davis Strait proto-microcontinent_ is a submerged continental fragment located offshore west Greenland, formed between 49 and 58 million years ago during the Paleogene. It is characterized by a thicker-than-normal continental crust measuring 19–24 km thick, surrounded by thinner crust bands (15–17 km). This microcontinent resulted from tectonic rifting and seafloor spreading between Greenland and Canada, specifically linked to the tectonic evolution of the Davis Strait. It is separated from mainland Greenland and Baffin Island by zones of thinner continental lithosphere. Its formation helps understand plate tectonic processes in the North Atlantic region.

Why in news?

Scientists recently discovered and named this submerged microcontinent, providing new vital information about the tectonic history and crustal structure of the Davis Strait region between Greenland and Canada.

Deep Space Network (DSN)

The Deep Space Network (DSN) is NASA’s global array of large radio antennas located in California, Spain, and Australia, supporting communication with spacecraft beyond Earth orbit. It handles tracking, telemetry, and command functions for missions to planets, asteroids, and deep space probes. The DSN operates 24/7, enabling continuous contact with distant spacecraft. It can also transmit encoded messages, such as music or data, into deep space as symbolic gestures. DSN antennas are among the largest and most sensitive radio dishes in the world, essential for long-distance space exploration.

Why in news?

NASA used the DSN to beam Missy Elliott’s song lyrics to Venus, marking the first hip-hop song transmitted into deep space.

Denisovans

Denisovans are an extinct archaic human group, first identified in 2010 from remains found in Denisova Cave, Siberia. Genetically, they diverged from Neanderthals about 400,000 years ago. Known primarily from dental and bone fragments across Siberia, Tibet, and Laos, Denisovans adapted to diverse environments including high altitudes and subtropical climates. They interbred with Homo sapiens, contributing DNA to some modern human populations. Fossils include a 160,000-year-old adolescent lower jaw and a recently identified rib fragment dating between 48,000 and 32,000 years ago, marking the youngest known Denisovan specimen. Their extinction timeline and causes remain unknown.

Why in news?

New Denisovan fossils from Baishiya Karst Cave provide fresh vital information about their lifestyle, hunting practices, and survival on the Tibetan Plateau.

Dimorphos

Dimorphos is a small asteroid orbiting the larger asteroid Didymos, located about 11 million kilometers from Earth. In 2022, NASA’s DART mission successfully impacted Dimorphos, altering its trajectory and shape. This was the first-ever demonstration of kinetic impactor technology aimed at planetary defense, proving it is possible to deflect an asteroid’s path. Dimorphos itself poses no threat to Earth but serves as a test case for future asteroid deflection efforts. The mission’s success marks a turning point from theoretical concepts to practical planetary defense capabilities.

Why in news?

The 2022 DART mission’s success with Dimorphos has inspired new planetary defense initiatives, including ISRO’s interest in asteroid study and defense.

Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ)

A Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) engine operates efficiently by switching between ramjet and scramjet modes depending on speed, typically between Mach 4 and Mach 8. At lower hypersonic speeds, it functions as a ramjet with subsonic combustion, and at higher speeds, it transitions to scramjet mode with supersonic combustion. This dual functionality allows a single engine to operate across a broader speed range, enhancing versatility for hypersonic flight. DMRJ engines do not have moving parts, relying on vehicle speed for air compression. They are being researched globally for applications in high-speed missiles and aerospace vehicles.

Why in news?

The article discusses types of air-breathing propulsion technologies ISRO and other agencies are developing, including the Dual Mode Ramjet, for future hypersonic aerospace applications.

Earth’s Inner Core Rotation Deceleration

Earth’s inner core rotation deceleration is a phenomenon where the solid inner core’s spin rate slows relative to the planet’s surface rotation. Studies show this deceleration follows a decades-long cyclical pattern of speeding up and slowing down. The inner core, about 5,180 km beneath the surface, spins independently due to the liquid outer core barrier. Recent findings reveal the inner core has not only slowed but reversed its rotation direction compared to Earth’s crust. This affects Earth’s magnetic field and geodynamics. The deceleration was first proposed in 2023 and confirmed by seismic data published in 2024.

Why in news?

New research published in 2024 confirms that Earth’s inner core rotation is slowing down dramatically and has even reversed direction, with implications for Earth’s magnetic field and geodynamics.

Eccentricity

Eccentricity measures how much a planet’s orbit deviates from a perfect circle, expressed as a number between 0 (circular) and 1 (parabolic). Earth’s eccentricity is about 0.017, meaning its orbit is nearly circular. Mars has a higher eccentricity of 0.094, causing its distance from the Sun to vary (129 million to 155 million miles). Pluto has an even more eccentric orbit at 0.244, ranging from 2.8 to 4.5 billion miles from the Sun. Orbital eccentricity influences seasonal intensity and climate variations on planets.

Why in news?

Eccentricity explains why Earth experiences aphelion and perihelion, affecting seasonal sunlight variation and climate patterns during 2024.

Einstein Ring

An Einstein ring is a gravitational lensing phenomenon where the light from a distant object, such as a galaxy or quasar, is bent by the gravity of a massive object between it and the observer, forming a ring-like image. This occurs when the source, lens, and observer are perfectly aligned. The effect was predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Einstein rings provide a natural magnification of distant objects, allowing astronomers to study galaxies that would otherwise be too faint or distant. The size and brightness of the ring depend on the mass of the lensing object and the distances involved.

Why in news?

An Einstein ring formed by a nearby galaxy magnified the distant HyLIRG PJ0116-24, enabling detailed observation of its star-forming activity 10 billion light-years away.

eVIN (Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network)

eVIN is a digital platform that manages vaccine inventory across India. It tracks vaccine vials from central stores to local vaccination sites, monitoring doses used, wasted, and returned. Each freezer storing vaccines is equipped with sensors to record temperature and humidity in real-time, ensuring cold chain integrity. eVIN helps vaccination sites raise vaccine demands based on real-time data. The system supports efficient logistics and reduces vaccine wastage. eVIN’s infrastructure is being leveraged by U-WIN for immunisation record management, ensuring seamless integration of inventory and vaccination data.

Why in news?

eVIN is linked with U-WIN to support the nationwide rollout of the new vaccine management system, enhancing vaccine tracking and reducing errors in immunisation delivery.

Expandable Space Habitats

Expandable space habitats are inflatable structures designed to maximize living space while minimizing launch volume and weight. These habitats use rigidizable or flexible materials that expand once in orbit, providing enhanced radiation and debris protection compared to rigid modules. Their design allows for compact launch configuration and then expansion to accommodate more crew or equipment. They are considered a key technology for future space tourism, long-duration missions, and lunar or Martian bases. Examples include NASA’s BEAM module on the ISS and Bigelow Aerospace’s prototypes, with expandable habitats offering improved volume-to-mass ratios.

Why in news?

The concept of expandable space habitats is central to AkashaLabdhi’s Antariksh HAB project, which aims to use this technology for space tourism and research by 2027.

Explicit Planetary Isentropic-Coordinate (EPIC) Model

The Explicit Planetary Isentropic-Coordinate (EPIC) model is a numerical atmospheric simulation tool developed in the 1990s by Timothy Dowling. It is designed to study planetary atmospheres by representing fluid dynamics on isentropic (constant potential temperature) surfaces, which simplifies the modeling of atmospheric circulation. EPIC has been used extensively to analyze gas giant atmospheres, including Jupiter’s storms. The model allows researchers to simulate interactions between large storms like the Great Red Spot and smaller transient storms, revealing how these smaller storms influence the size and strength of the Great Red Spot through energy transfer and momentum exchange.

Why in news?

The EPIC model was used by scientists to study the shrinking of Jupiter’s Great Red Spot and how smaller storms affect its size and strength.

Final Parsec Problem

The final parsec problem refers to the theoretical challenge in astrophysics where supermassive black hole (SMBH) pairs stall at about one parsec (~3.26 light years) apart, preventing their merger. This occurs because gravitational interactions with stars and gas become inefficient at shrinking the orbit further. The problem has persisted as a barrier to explaining how SMBHs coalesce after galaxy collisions. Recent studies suggest dark matter interactions may provide the missing mechanism to overcome this stall, allowing SMBHs to merge and produce detectable gravitational waves. This concept is crucial in understanding galaxy evolution and SMBH growth.

Why in news?

The final parsec problem is central to new research showing that dark matter particle interactions can enable supermassive black holes to merge, resolving a longstanding astrophysical puzzle.

Halo Orbit

A halo orbit is a periodic, three-dimensional orbit around the Lagrangian points, where gravitational forces of two large bodies, like the Earth and the Sun, balance the centripetal force felt by a smaller object. It allows spacecraft to maintain a stable position relative to these bodies with minimal fuel use. These orbits are used for continuous observation missions like Aditya-L1. The orbit is shaped like a halo or a figure-eight loop in three dimensions. The spacecraft completes one revolution in this orbit in roughly 178 days. Station-keeping maneuvers are required to correct deviations caused by gravitational perturbations.

Why in news?

Aditya-L1 completed its first halo orbit around the Sun-Earth L1 point and performed a third station-keeping maneuver to maintain its trajectory in July 2024.

Human Brain Project

The Human Brain Project (HBP) is a large-scale European research initiative launched in 2013 aimed at advancing neuroscience, computing, and brain-related medicine. It integrates data from brain research to build a unified platform for brain simulation and analysis. The HBP utilizes supercomputers to model brain function and disorders. It involves over 150 institutions and has created tools like the Brain Simulation Platform and Medical Informatics Platform. A lesser-known fact is that the project also emphasizes ethical considerations and societal impacts of neurotechnology. It has faced criticism for management challenges but remains a mainstay in European neuroscience research.

Why in news?

The Human Brain Project is referenced as a major initiative boosting neuroscience research during the 1990s and beyond, denoting its role in the current neurotechnology landscape.

India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO)

The India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is a proposed underground laboratory planned to be located 1.3 km underground in Tamil Nadu. It aims to study neutrinos, elusive subatomic particles that are key to understanding the universe’s origin. The project was announced in 2011 with a budget of approximately ₹1,350 crores. The INO is designed to house a large neutrino detector shielded from natural radiation by its underground location. Despite its scientific potential, the project has faced delays due to environmental concerns and opposition related to radioactivity fears. Its current status remains uncertain as of mid-2024.

Why in news?

The INO project remains stalled despite its importance for Indian neutrino research and international collaboration, with debates ongoing about its environmental impact and scientific relevance.

Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (Cert-In)

Cert-In is India’s national nodal agency for cybersecurity incidents, operating under the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY). It issues advisories and coordinates responses to cyber threats and incidents affecting Indian infrastructure. Cert-In works closely with chief information security officers (CISOs) of critical infrastructure entities to implement workarounds and mitigation strategies. The agency also collaborates with international partners to address global cybersecurity challenges. Cert-In played a key role in managing the fallout from the July 2024 Microsoft Azure outage by providing guidance to affected organizations.

Why in news?

Cert-In issued advisories and coordinated with impacted Indian entities during the July 2024 global outage caused by a faulty CrowdStrike Falcon update affecting Microsoft Azure services.

Indian Wireless Telegraph Act, 1933

The Indian Wireless Telegraph Act, 1933, was an early legislation governing wireless communication in India. It regulated the use of wireless telegraphy equipment and frequencies, requiring licenses for operation. This Act was foundational in managing radio waves during the colonial era and early independent India. It addressed issues like interference, national security, and communication control. However, it became outdated due to technological advances in telecommunications. The 2023 Telecommunications Act seeks to repeal this Act, replacing it with a modern framework that accommodates contemporary technologies like mobile networks, satellite communication, and internet-based services.

Why in news?

The new Telecommunications Act 2023 repeals the Indian Wireless Telegraph Act, 1933, to modernize laws in line with current telecom technologies and spectrum management needs.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

Induced pluripotent stem cells are adult cells reprogrammed to an embryonic-like state, capable of differentiating into any cell type. This technology was first developed in 2006 by Shinya Yamanaka. iPSCs are widely used for disease modeling, drug testing, and regenerative medicine. They enable personalized medicine by allowing patient-specific cell lines to be created. iPSCs retain the genetic information of the donor, making them valuable for studying genetic disorders and testing gene-editing tools like CRISPR. Their use reduces ethical concerns associated with embryonic stem cells.

Why in news?

The research team reprogrammed skin cells from an LCA2 patient into iPSCs, edited the mutation using enhanced FnCas9, and differentiated them into retinal cells to restore normal protein expression.

INSAT Satellite Systems

The INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites commissioned by ISRO for telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations. Launched since 1983, INSAT satellites support weather forecasting and disaster warning services across India and neighboring countries. The system includes communication, meteorological, and data relay satellites. A lesser-known fact is that INSAT was one of the earliest regional satellite systems globally to integrate multiple services on a single platform. Its technology laid the groundwork for India’s current satellite communication infrastructure. INSAT satellites operate primarily in geostationary orbit at approximately 36,000 km altitude.

Why in news?

The 2024-2025 Indian Union Budget almost halved the allocation for INSAT satellite systems compared to the previous year, signaling a shift in funding priorities within ISRO’s space programs.

International Federation of Robotics (IFR)

The International Federation of Robotics (IFR) is a global organization that promotes and supports robotics development and adoption worldwide. It collects data and publishes statistics on robot usage, including industrial and service robots. South Korea is noted by the IFR as having one industrial robot for every 10 employees, reflecting its advanced integration of robotics in industry. The IFR also provides guidelines and encourages collaboration between governments, industries, and research institutions to advance robotics technology safely and efficiently.

Why in news?

The IFR data marks South Korea’s high robot adoption rate, providing context for the government’s deployment of service robots like the “Robot Supervisor.”

Internationalized Domain Names (IDNs)

Internationalized Domain Names (IDNs) allow internet users to register domain names in native scripts and languages, such as Devanagari, Cyrillic, Arabic, or Chinese characters, instead of just Latin alphabets. This promotes linguistic diversity and accessibility on the internet, especially for non-English speakers. IDNs are encoded using Punycode to be compatible with the Domain Name System (DNS). The promotion of IDNs supports multi-lingualism and helps bridge the digital divide by making the web more inclusive. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) oversees their implementation and standardization globally.

Why in news?

The UK-India Technology Security Initiative includes expanding dialogue on internet governance and promoting multi-lingualism through IDNs as part of their collaboration on digital technical standards.

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s Third Law states that the square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. Formally, \(T^2 \propto a^3\), where \(T\) is the orbital period and \(a\) the average orbital radius. This law applies to two bodies orbiting their barycenter and helps determine the relationship between their masses and orbital parameters. It is fundamental for understanding planetary motion and has been instrumental in discovering exoplanets by measuring the star’s motion around the barycenter caused by orbiting planets.

Why in news?

Kepler’s Third Law is referenced to explain the mutual orbit of celestial bodies around their barycenter and how this principle aids in understanding the Sun-Earth system and detecting exoplanets.

Ketogenic Diet in Epilepsy

The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet that induces a metabolic state called ketosis, where the body uses fat for energy instead of glucose. It has been used since the 1920s to reduce seizures in treatment-resistant epilepsy, especially in children. The exact mechanism is unclear but may involve changes in brain energy metabolism and neurotransmitter activity. The diet requires strict medical supervision due to potential side effects like nutrient deficiencies and kidney stones. It is considered when anti-seizure medications fail and can reduce seizure frequency in some patients.

Why in news?

The ketogenic diet is cited as a non-surgical treatment option for epilepsy before considering DBS or brain surgery, denoting its role in reducing seizures.

Laser-Induced Reduced Graphene Oxide (LIrGO)

Laser-Induced Reduced Graphene Oxide (LIrGO) is a technique where a laser beam is used to reduce graphene oxide (GO) directly on substrates like paper or fabric. This process avoids chemical reductants, making it more environmentally friendly. LIrGO produces conductive graphene films with controlled patterns and thickness. The method enables rapid, mask-free fabrication of flexible electronic devices. However, earlier versions of LIrGO had limited electrical and physicochemical properties compared to chemically reduced graphene oxide. Improvements in LIrGO aim to enhance conductivity and durability for applications in sensors, supercapacitors, and wearable electronics.

Why in news?

Researchers at BITS Pilani improved LIrGO properties by incorporating shellac, enabling better one-step fabrication of flexible sensors on paper and cloth.

Ligeia Mare

Ligeia Mare is the second-largest sea on Titan, with a surface area similar to North America’s Lake Superior. It is a methane-rich body of liquid hydrocarbons located near Titan’s north pole. Cassini’s bistatic radar measurements revealed variations in surface roughness and the presence of estuaries where methane rivers flow into the sea. The chemical composition differs from ethane-rich seas like Punga Mare, denoting Titan’s complex hydrocarbon cycle. Ligeia Mare’s tidal currents are weak but measurable due to Saturn’s gravitational pull, and the sea plays a key role in Titan’s methane-based hydrologic system.

Why in news?

Recent studies based on Cassini data have mapped Ligeia Mare’s surface features and chemical variations, providing new understanding of Titan’s liquid hydrocarbon cycle.

Long March 3B Rocket

The Long March 3B is a Chinese orbital launch vehicle introduced in 1996. Its maiden flight ended in failure when it veered off course and crashed into the village of Mayelin, causing a large fireball and damage. Official reports cite six casualties, though US defense sources estimated hundreds. The rocket uses a three-stage design with liquid-fueled engines and is primarily used for launching satellites into geostationary transfer orbit. It remains one of China’s workhorse rockets despite its early failure and has undergone multiple upgrades to improve reliability and payload capacity.

Why in news?

The Long March 3B rocket’s maiden failure in 1996 led to US-China space cooperation restrictions and is referenced amid ongoing discussions of China’s space program risks and safety issues.

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter is a NASA robotic spacecraft launched in 2009 to map the moon’s surface at high resolution. It carries instruments such as a radar system capable of penetrating the lunar surface to detect subsurface features like lava tubes and caves. LRO’s data has provided detailed topographic maps, temperature measurements, and radiation assessments. It has identified over 200 pit craters and helped locate permanently shadowed regions with ice deposits. The orbiter’s radar data was crucial in confirming the existence of the newly discovered lunar cave near Apollo 11’s site.

Why in news?

Radar measurements from the LRO were analyzed to detect and confirm the cave connected to the deepest known pit on the moon near the Sea of Tranquility.

Maize Doubled Haploid (DH) Technology

Doubled haploid (DH) technology in maize breeding produces completely homozygous inbred lines rapidly, reducing the conventional 6-8 generation self-pollination process to just two cropping cycles. This technology creates genetically pure lines by doubling chromosome sets in haploid plants. CIMMYT’s DH facility in Kunigal, uses this method to speed up hybrid maize development, enabling faster breeding of high-yielding, stress-tolerant, and disease-resistant varieties. The DH lines are used as parents in hybrid crosses, improving uniformity and performance. This technology is vital for adapting maize to diverse Indian agro-climatic conditions and enhancing commercial hybrid seed production.

Why in news?

The Kunigal DH facility has produced nearly 30,000 DH lines, accelerating maize hybrid development in India, crucial for increasing maize output and meeting industrial and feed demand.

Mars Sample Return Mission

The Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission is a planned multi-spacecraft effort to bring Martian rock and soil samples collected by Perseverance back to Earth. It faces delays and cost overruns, with a projected launch now around 2040 and costs exceeding $11 billion. NASA is exploring alternative, less expensive methods for sample retrieval, including contracting private companies to innovate faster and cheaper solutions. The mission involves complex logistics like transferring samples from Perseverance to a return spacecraft, potentially requiring additional robotic vehicles or rover maneuvers. MSR is crucial for definitive analysis of Mars samples with Earth-based instruments.

Why in news?

The Mars Sample Return mission is under scrutiny due to budget and schedule challenges, prompting NASA to seek new approaches to accelerate and reduce the cost of returning Perseverance’s collected samples to Earth.

MEMS, Microfluidics and Nanoelectronics (MMNE) Lab

The MEMS, Microfluidics and Nanoelectronics (MMNE) Lab focuses on interdisciplinary research combining Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), microfluidic device development, and nanoelectronic materials. MEMS are miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical elements made using microfabrication. Microfluidics studies the behavior of fluids at microscale, enabling lab-on-chip devices. Nanoelectronics involves electronic components at the nanometer scale, enhancing device performance and integration. The MMNE Lab at BITS Pilani Hyderabad works on developing novel materials and devices for healthcare, energy, and sensing applications, including flexible electronics and biosensors.

Why in news?

The MMNE Lab’s PhD scholar led the research on shellac-enhanced graphene-like films for flexible and wearable electronics at BITS Pilani Hyderabad.

Murine Hepatitis Virus (MHV)

Murine Hepatitis Virus is a coronavirus that infects mice and belongs to the same family as human coronaviruses. It serves as a model organism in laboratory research to study coronavirus behavior and immune responses. MHV has multiple strains causing diseases ranging from respiratory infections to hepatitis in rodents. It is used as a surrogate in experiments because it is safer to handle than human coronaviruses and shares structural similarities with SARS-CoV-2. MHV helps in understanding viral entry, replication, and immune neutralization mechanisms relevant to human coronavirus infections. Its genome is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA of approximately 31 kb.

Why in news?

MHV was used in studies by the CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology to test if dengue antibodies could neutralize coronaviruses, providing vital information about cross-immunity during the COVID-19 pandemic.

National Institute of High-Security Animal Diseases (NIHSAD)

NIHSAD, located in Bhopal, is a premier research institute specializing in the diagnosis and study of highly contagious animal diseases. It operates under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The institute is equipped to handle pathogens requiring biosafety level 4 containment, including avian influenza viruses like H5N1. NIHSAD is a central reference laboratory for confirming outbreaks and guiding response measures. It supports surveillance and research to develop diagnostics and control strategies. Sample testing turnaround can take up to two weeks, prompting calls for local testing facilities in affected regions.

Why in news?

NIHSAD confirms avian influenza outbreaks in Kerala’s poultry and wild birds, but delays in testing hamper timely containment and culling decisions.

National Institute of Virology (NIV)

The National Institute of Virology (NIV) is a premier virology research institute in India, located in Pune. It functions under the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and specializes in viral disease research, diagnostics, and vaccine development. Established in 1952, NIV played a key role in identifying and studying viruses like dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. It operates one of the few high-containment biosafety level 4 laboratories in India. NIV collaborates with private hospitals and government bodies for testing and surveillance, providing rapid diagnostics and virus strain identification critical for outbreak management. NIV’s Zika testing facility is central to Maharashtra’s current outbreak response.

Why in news?

NIV’s Zika testing facility in Pune is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring the recent Zika virus cases detected in Maharashtra, contributing to rapid sample processing and surveillance.

National Quantum Mission (India)

India launched the National Quantum Mission in 2023 with a budget of around Rs 6,000 crore ($0.75 billion). The mission focuses on four domains – quantum computing, communications, sensors, and materials. It aims to build India’s capabilities in quantum technologies, leveraging the country’s strong research base and large number of students in related fields. Despite limited funding compared to countries like China and the US, the mission seeks to accelerate development and position India as a competitive player in global quantum technology research and applications. It also emphasizes nurturing young talent and creating a dedicated quantum science cadre.

Why in news?

India’s National Quantum Mission was launched last year to boost research and development in quantum technologies, aiming to close the gap with global leaders like China and the US.

National Supercomputing Mission (NSM)

The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) is an initiative by the Government of India to establish a network of high-performance computing facilities across the country. It aims to build and deploy 24 supercomputing centers with a combined capacity exceeding 64 petaflops. The mission is implemented by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) and executed through the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) and the Indian Institute of Science (IISc). NSM supports research, development, and innovation in science, engineering, and technology by providing affordable access to supercomputing infrastructure.

Why in news?

Telangana is requesting MeitY to set up a 20 petaflops supercomputing facility in Hyderabad’s proposed AI city under NSM, expanding India’s computing capacity for AI development.

Neutrino Oscillation

Neutrino oscillation is a quantum phenomenon where neutrinos switch between different types (flavors) as they travel. This discovery, first evidenced by the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan, proved that neutrinos have mass, contradicting earlier assumptions. The phenomenon was crucial in awarding the 2015 Nobel Prize jointly to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur McDonald. Neutrino oscillation explains why fewer solar neutrinos were detected than predicted and has deep implications for particle physics and cosmology. It also suggests physics beyond the Standard Model, influencing research on the universe’s matter-antimatter imbalance.

Why in news?

Neutrino oscillation remains a key scientific breakthrough linked to the work of Nobel laureate Takaaki Kajita, who advocates for the INO to advance neutrino research in India.

Northern Crown (Corona Borealis)

The Northern Crown, or Corona Borealis, is a small, horseshoe-shaped constellation in the Northern Hemisphere, located west of Hercules. It contains several bright stars, with T CrB situated within it. The constellation is best found by tracing a line between two bright stars, Arcturus and Vega. It has been known since antiquity and was historically associated with mythological crowns. The constellation is relatively faint but distinct, making it a useful reference for locating celestial events in the northern sky.

Why in news?

T CrB, the star set to nova in 2024, lies within the Northern Crown constellation, making it a key point of interest for stargazers.

Omega Centauri

Omega Centauri is the largest and most massive globular star cluster in the Milky Way, located approximately 18,000 light-years from Earth. It contains about 10 million stars and is unique for its complex stellar populations, suggesting it may be the remnant core of a dwarf galaxy absorbed by the Milky Way. Unlike typical globular clusters, Omega Centauri shows a wide range of star ages and chemical compositions. It spans about 150 light-years across and is visible to the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere. Its unusual properties have made it a key target for studying galactic evolution.

Why in news?

Omega Centauri is in the news as the site of a newly confirmed intermediate-mass black hole, the closest massive black hole to Earth discovered so far, deepening understanding of black hole formation.

Planetary Orbital Jostling

Planetary orbital jostling describes the gravitational tug-of-war among planets that causes their orbits to be elliptical and change over time. Jupiter, being the most massive planet, exerts the strongest influence on Earth’s orbit. This gravitational interaction causes Earth’s eccentricity to fluctuate, currently decreasing and making the orbit more circular. Over long periods, these interactions can alter orbital shapes and tilt, impacting climate and possibly habitability. This phenomenon is common in solar systems and likely occurs around other stars as well.

Why in news?

In 2024, scientists show how gravitational interactions among planets, especially Jupiter, shape Earth’s orbit and affect aphelion timing and orbital eccentricity.

Platonic Solids

Platonic solids are highly symmetrical, convex polyhedra with faces composed of congruent regular polygons and the same number of faces meeting at each vertex. There are exactly five – tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron. These shapes have been studied since antiquity and are named after Plato, who associated them with the classical elements. In mathematics and crystallography, they represent fundamental symmetry and structure. Ernö Rubik’s initial inspiration for the cube came while researching these solids, leading him to explore how smaller cubes could be interconnected to form a larger cube with movable parts.

Why in news?

The Rubik’s Cube inventor was inspired by Platonic solids during the cube’s development, marking the puzzle’s 50th anniversary.

Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 (PRIME-1)

PRIME-1 is a NASA lunar mission scheduled to land at the Moon’s South Pole in late 2024. The experiment aims to detect and analyze water ice in permanently shadowed lunar regions and demonstrate in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) techniques. PRIME-1 uses a drill to extract ice samples and instruments to study the composition and abundance of lunar volatiles. It is a precursor to larger ISRU efforts intended to support sustained human presence on the Moon by providing water for life support and fuel production.

Why in news?

PRIME-1 is brought into light as an alternative mission to achieve VIPER’s objectives of locating lunar water ice and demonstrating resource extraction technologies.

Pragyaan Rover

The Pragyaan Rover is India’s lunar rover deployed by the Chandrayaan-3 mission in August 2023. It successfully landed near the Moon’s southern pole with the Vikram Lander. Pragyaan weighs approximately 27 kg and is equipped with instruments to analyze lunar soil, measure seismic activity, and study the lunar atmosphere. It uses solar power and communicates with Earth via the Vikram Lander. The rover’s mission duration was initially planned for one lunar day (~14 Earth days). Pragyaan’s deployment marked India’s first successful rover operation on the Moon’s surface, contributing valuable scientific data on the lunar south pole region.

Why in news?

Pragyaan Rover’s successful landing and operation in 2023 led to the establishment of National Space Day in India, with associated celebrations and events in 2024.

Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) to the Government of India

The Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) is a high-level advisory position created in 1999 to provide scientific counsel to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The PSA coordinates science and technology policies across ministries and promotes strategic research initiatives. The office plays role in shaping national R&D priorities and funding allocation. A lesser-known fact is that the PSA’s office also facilitates international scientific collaborations and innovation ecosystems to enhance India’s global scientific standing. The PSA fellowship includes eminent scientists and technologists who contribute to policy and technical advisory roles.

Why in news?

The PSA commissioned the Automotive Research Association of India to prepare the emobility R&D roadmap to boost India’s battery technology capabilities.

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are essential components in electronic devices, providing physical support and electrical connections for electronic components. They consist of layers of copper circuits laminated onto insulating substrates. PCBs range from simple single-layer boards to complex multi-layered ones used in smartphones and computers. Manufacturing PCBs requires advanced technology and precise miniaturization, making domestic production challenging in emerging markets. India currently imports share of PCBs due to limited local manufacturing capabilities, which raises costs for smartphone assembly units. Developing domestic PCB production is projected to take about eight years.

Why in news?

PCBs are among the components for which the Indian electronics industry seeks tariff reductions, citing lack of domestic production and high import costs impacting smartphone assembly competitiveness.

Punga Mare

Punga Mare is the third-largest sea on Titan, roughly the size of Africa’s Lake Victoria. It is situated near Titan’s north pole and is part of the moon’s extensive network of liquid hydrocarbon seas. Punga Mare’s composition is ethane-rich compared to other seas like Kraken Mare and Ligeia Mare, which have varying methane and ethane ratios influenced by latitude. The sea’s surface shows tidal activity caused by Saturn’s gravitational pull, with subtle surface ripples and currents. Punga Mare contributes to Titan’s methane-based hydrologic cycle, where liquid hydrocarbons evaporate, condense, and flow in a cycle analogous to Earth’s water cycle.

Why in news?

Recent studies analyzing Cassini radar data have brought into light Punga Mare’s chemical composition and tidal dynamics, deepening knowledge of Titan’s complex hydrocarbon seas.

Quantum Tunnelling

Quantum tunnelling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon where particles pass through a potential energy barrier that they classically should not be able to cross. This occurs because particles have wave-like properties, allowing their wavefunction to extend beyond barriers. It plays important role in nuclear fusion in stars and in modern electronics like tunnel diodes and flash memory. In cosmology, quantum tunnelling is theorized as a mechanism by which the Higgs field could transition to a lower energy state, potentially altering the universe’s stability. The probability of such tunnelling events is extraordinarily low, estimated at about 1 in 10^100 years.

Why in news?

Quantum tunnelling is discussed as a possible way the Higgs field might change energy states, which could dramatically affect the universe’s stability according to recent top quark mass measurements.

Sea of Tranquility

The Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) is a lunar mare formed by ancient volcanic eruptions, covering about 873,000 square kilometers. It is composed mainly of basaltic lava and is one of the moon’s smoothest plains. The mare formed roughly 3.5 billion years ago during the Imbrian period. It contains numerous lava tubes and pits created by lava tube collapses. The site is historically as the Apollo 11 landing location on July 20, 1969. Its flat terrain and geological features make it a prime candidate for future lunar exploration and habitation.

Why in news?

The Sea of Tranquility is in the spotlight due to the discovery of a sizable cave accessible from the deepest known pit nearby, potentially useful for future astronaut habitats.

Tardigrades

Tardigrades, also known as water bears, are microscopic animals renowned for surviving extreme conditions including high radiation, vacuum of space, extreme temperatures, and starvation. Their genome contains unique proteins and genes that protect their cells from damage caused by environmental stress. Scientists have successfully inserted tardigrade genes into human cells in labs, increasing their tolerance to X-ray radiation. Research is ongoing to explore if these genes can be used to engineer radiation-resistant crops or even humans, potentially aiding long-duration space travel and extraterrestrial colonization by enhancing biological resilience.

Why in news?

Tardigrade genes are being studied for their potential to protect humans and crops from radiation in space, a key challenge for deep space exploration and colonization efforts discussed by experts like Martin Rees.

Wolbachia

Wolbachia is a genus of intracellular bacteria found in many arthropods, including insects. These bacteria are maternally transmitted through eggs but absent in sperm, leading to female-biased progeny. Wolbachia manipulate host reproduction by mechanisms such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, male killing, feminization, and parthenogenesis induction. The bacteria can alter host sex ratios to enhance their own transmission. Wolbachia are also involved in horizontal gene transfer, acquiring genes from hosts or other organisms. They have applications in controlling vector-borne diseases by infecting mosquitoes to reduce pathogen transmission. Wolbachia’s evolutionary impact extends to host speciation and reproductive isolation.

Why in news?

Researchers discovered Wolbachia bacteria manipulate the wasp Encarsia formosa to eliminate males by doubling chromosome numbers in unfertilised eggs, relying on a horizontally transferred tra gene, impacting whitefly biological control.

Yersinia pestis

Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative bacterium responsible for causing bubonic plague. It was discovered in 1894 by Alexandre Yersin during a plague outbreak in Hong Kong. The bacterium primarily infects rodents and is transmitted to humans via fleas. It can also cause septicemic and pneumonic plague forms. Yersinia pestis has a unique ability to survive in flea guts, blocking them and increasing transmission efficiency. Its genome contains virulence factors such as the plasminogen activator gene, aiding in immune evasion. The bacterium can enter human lymph nodes, causing buboes, and without treatment, it can be fatal.

Why in news?

Yersinia pestis is the causative agent behind the bubonic plague case recently confirmed in Colorado’s Pueblo County.

International Relations & Organizations

1954 Hague Convention and its Second Protocol

The 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first international treaty focused on safeguarding cultural heritage during war. Its Second Protocol (1999) enhances protection measures by introducing stricter rules, including the establishment of special protective zones and provisions for enhanced penalties against violations. The Convention obligates signatories to refrain from using cultural sites for military purposes and to prevent damage. UNESCO’s provisional enhanced protection status under this treaty helps mobilize international assistance for endangered sites.

Why in news?

UNESCO granted provisional enhanced protection to Tell Umm Amer under this Convention in December 2023, preceding its official World Heritage listing in 2024, to safeguard it amid ongoing conflict.

Agreement on Consular Access 2008

The Agreement on Consular Access 2008 is a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan that facilitates the exchange of lists of prisoners, including civilians and fishermen, held in each other’s custody. It mandates the exchange of such lists twice a year, on January 1 and July 1, to ensure transparency and humanitarian treatment. The agreement also allows for consular visits and communication to verify prisoner identities and conditions. It is a key diplomatic mechanism aimed at reducing tensions and ensuring the welfare of detainees amidst ongoing political conflicts between the two nations.

Why in news?

The agreement was cited during the July 2024 exchange of lists of civilian prisoners, fishermen, and missing defence personnel between India and Pakistan, marking continued diplomatic engagement under this treaty.

AINs (Athletes from Individual Neutral States)

The term AIN refers to athletes competing independently without national symbols, flags, or anthems, usually due to sanctions or bans on their countries. Introduced by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), AIN status allows athletes from banned nations like Russia and Belarus to participate in the Olympics while distancing them from their governments’ actions. They undergo a strict vetting process to ensure they have not supported prohibited activities, such as war efforts or doping. The concept first gained prominence after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, allowing individual athletes to compete fairly despite political sanctions.

Why in news?

Russian and Belarusian athletes will participate in the 2024 Paris Olympics as AINs due to the IOC ban following Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, allowing individual participation without national representation.

Al-Awda Mosque (Rafah)

The Al-Awda Mosque, located in central Rafah near the Gaza-Egypt border, is a prominent religious and cultural landmark. It has historically served as a community center and place of worship for Rafah’s residents. The mosque is notable for its distinctive architecture and its role in local social and religious activities. During conflicts, it has been a site of contention, sometimes caught in crossfire or targeted due to its proximity to militant groups. The name “Al-Awda” translates to “The Return,” symbolizing Palestinian aspirations for return to their homeland.

Why in news?

The Al-Awda mosque in Rafah was reportedly torched by Israeli forces amid military operations targeting Hamas battalions in July 2024.

Arctic Shipping Routes

The Arctic shipping routes refer to maritime paths through the Arctic Ocean that are becoming increasingly navigable due to climate change and melting ice caps. Key routes include the Northern Sea Route along Russia’s coast and the Northwest Passage through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. These routes shorten travel times between Asia, Europe, and North America compared to traditional routes via the Suez or Panama Canals. Increased activity has strategic military and commercial implications, including new opportunities for naval logistics and resource extraction. Russia maintains a strong military presence in the Arctic to secure these routes.

Why in news?

The military agreement between India and Russia includes cooperation involving naval logistics in the Arctic, where new shipping routes are opening due to receding ice caps.

Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention

Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, adopted in 1949, prohibits an occupying power from forcibly transferring its own civilian population into occupied territory. It aims to protect the rights and welfare of civilians in war-affected areas. The article forbids deportations, transfers, or colonization by the occupying power, classifying such acts as violations of international humanitarian law. This provision is frequently cited in disputes over settlement activities, including Israel’s transfer of settlers to the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The article is part of a broader framework designed to safeguard civilians during armed conflict and occupation.

Why in news?

The ICJ ruled that Israel’s transfer of settlers to occupied Palestinian territories violates Article 49, reinforcing international legal objections to settlement expansion.

Article 5 of the Washington Treaty

Article 5 is the mainstay of NATO’s collective defense principle, stating that an armed attack against one or more members is considered an attack against all. It obliges member states to assist the attacked country, including the use of armed force if necessary. This article has been invoked only once, after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. It underpins NATO’s deterrence strategy and solidarity. However, Ukraine is not covered by Article 5 as it is a partner, not a member. The article requires unanimous agreement among members to act, reflecting NATO’s consensus-based decision-making.

Why in news?

Article 5 was discussed in the context of NATO’s commitment to defend its members and the ongoing debate about Ukraine’s potential membership amid the war with Russia.

AUKUS Project

AUKUS is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, announced in 2021 to enhance defense cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. A key component is the provision of nuclear-powered submarines to Australia, marking shift in regional military balance. The pact aims to counter China’s growing influence and improve interoperability among the three countries’ militaries. It also includes collaboration on cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, and quantum technologies. AUKUS is notable for being one of the few Western-led defense initiatives focused explicitly on the Indo-Pacific security environment.

Why in news?

AUKUS was referenced during the NATO summit as an example of increased European and U.S. engagement in Indo-Pacific security, especially Britain’s role alongside the U.S. in the region.

Austrian State Treaty (1955)

The Austrian State Treaty was signed in 1955 by the four occupying powers (the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union) and Austria, ending a decade of Allied occupation after World War II. It restored Austria’s sovereignty under the condition of permanent neutrality, prohibiting military alliances and foreign bases on Austrian soil. This treaty was a unique Cold War compromise, ensuring Austria remained a neutral buffer state between the Western and Eastern blocs. The treaty’s ratification marked Austria’s independence and shaped its foreign policy framework, modeled on Swiss neutrality, which continues to define Austria’s international stance .

Why in news?

Austria’s neutrality, established by the 1955 State Treaty, was brought into light during Prime Minister Modi’s visit to Vienna shortly after meeting Putin in Moscow, underscoring Austria’s unique geopolitical position amid current Russia-West tensions.

Black Sea Grain Shipment

The Black Sea grain shipment refers to the export of Ukrainian grain through Black Sea ports, which are critical for global food supply. Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, these shipments have been disrupted, causing a global food crisis. A UN-brokered deal in 2022 allowed limited grain exports under international supervision. India has actively conveyed concerns to Moscow regarding the safe passage of these shipments, emphasizing their importance for global food security. The issue involves complex diplomacy due to the war, sanctions, and maritime security risks in the Black Sea region.

Why in news?

India’s diplomatic efforts to ensure safe Black Sea grain shipments were brought into light during discussions between Indian and Russian officials amid the Ukraine conflict.

Black Sea Mine Clearance Initiative

The Black Sea Mine Clearance Initiative is a joint effort by Romania, Bulgaria, and Turkey to detect and neutralize stray naval mines in the Black Sea. These mines pose hazards to commercial shipping and military vessels. The initiative uses specialized mine-hunting vessels, sonar technology, and remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) to locate and safely dispose of mines. This collaborative effort enhances maritime security and freedom of navigation in a geopolitically sensitive area. It also prevents accidental detonations that could cause environmental damage or disrupt regional trade routes.

Why in news?

Romania and Bulgaria, together with Turkey, continue cooperating to clear stray mines from the Black Sea, ensuring safer maritime conditions amid regional tensions.

Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) Movement

The BDS Movement, founded in 2005, is a global campaign promoting various forms of boycott against Israel until it complies with international law regarding Palestinian rights. It targets economic, cultural, and academic sectors, seeking sanctions and divestment from companies and institutions linked to Israel. BDS has called for Israel’s exclusion from international sports events, including FIFA and IOC competitions, arguing that Israeli policies violate Palestinian human rights. The movement has been both widely supported by pro-Palestinian activists and criticized by others who view it as politically divisive or discriminatory.

Why in news?

BDS has intensified calls to ban Israel from the 2024 Paris Olympics, citing alleged violations of Palestinian rights amid the ongoing Gaza conflict.

Central America’s Northern Triangle

Central America’s Northern Triangle comprises Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. This region is a primary source of migration to the U.S., driven by poverty, violence, and corruption. It has one of the highest homicide rates globally, contributing to mass displacement. The Triangle’s socioeconomic instability fuels migration flows, often involving dangerous journeys through Mexico. The U.S. government has focused diplomatic efforts here to address root causes of migration, including financial aid and development programs. The Northern Triangle’s migration crisis has persisted for over a decade, impacting U.S. immigration policy and border management strategies.

Why in news?

Kamala Harris was tasked by the Biden administration to lead diplomatic efforts addressing migration root causes in this region as part of U.S. immigration strategy.

Chabahar Port

Chabahar Port is a strategically vital deep-sea port in southeastern Iran on the Gulf of Oman. It provides India and Iran access to Central Asia and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan. The port project began under reformist President Khatami in 2002 and has continued under various administrations, including hardliner Raisi. It is crucial for trade and regional connectivity, especially for India’s economic and geopolitical interests. The port has faced delays and challenges due to U.S. sanctions on Iran but remains a symbol of Indo-Iranian cooperation and regional strategic balance.

Why in news?

Chabahar Port’s development reflects continuity in Iran-India relations despite Iran’s internal political shifts and external sanctions pressures.

Demilitarised Zone (DMZ)

The Korean Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) is a buffer zone established by the armistice agreement of July 27, 1953, to separate North and South Korea. It runs approximately along the 38th parallel and is about 250 kilometers long and 4 kilometers wide. The DMZ is one of the most heavily militarized borders in the world, guarded by troops from both Koreas. It also became an unintended wildlife sanctuary due to limited human activity. The DMZ symbolizes the unresolved nature of the Korean War and remains a flashpoint for tensions and occasional skirmishes.

Why in news?

The DMZ continues to be a focal point for military and diplomatic developments between North and South Korea.

Dual-Use Goods

Dual-use goods are items and technologies that can be used for both civilian and military applications. Western sanctions prohibit exporting these goods to Russia due to concerns they could support the conflict in Ukraine. Examples include certain semiconductors, drone parts, and advanced electronics. The classification of products as dual-use often leads to extended customs and compliance checks, causing payment and shipment delays. China is viewed by the U.S. as a critical source of such materials for Russia’s military. Accurate documentation is essential to clear these goods, but uncertainty over classification frequently slows trade.

Why in news?

Delays in Russian-Chinese trade are partly due to sanctions and scrutiny over dual-use goods that might support Russia’s military efforts in Ukraine.

Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an intergovernmental body established in 1989 to combat money laundering, terrorist financing, and other threats to the international financial system. It sets global standards and promotes effective implementation of legal, regulatory, and operational measures. Countries are regularly evaluated on their compliance with FATF recommendations. Non-compliance can lead to economic sanctions and blacklisting, affecting international trade and investment. Pakistan has faced scrutiny for its insufficient actions against terrorist financing, leading to pressure to improve enforcement and transparency. FATF’s decisions influence global financial and diplomatic relations.

Why in news?

Pakistan’s ongoing challenges with FATF compliance were part of discussions during the Pakistan-Turkey bilateral talks, with Turkey offering political support amid Pakistan’s difficulties.

Ganga-Volga Dialogue

The Ganga-Volga Dialogue is a cultural and civilizational exchange initiative between India and Russia, symbolizing the connection between the two countries through their iconic rivers – the Ganga in India and the Volga in Russia. It promotes mutual understanding, shared heritage, and cooperation in areas such as history, culture, and diplomacy. The dialogue serves as a platform to deepen people-to-people ties and reinforce the “special and privileged strategic partnership” between the two nations. It also reflects efforts to explore common civilizational roots and strengthen bilateral relations beyond economic and political spheres.

Why in news?

PM Modi referenced the Ganga-Volga Dialogue during his Moscow address in July 2024, emphasizing its role in encouraging India-Russia cultural and civilizational ties.

Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI)

The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) is an international initiative launched in 2020 to promote responsible AI development and use. It began with 15 founding countries and has expanded to 29 members, with plans to grow to 65 by early 2025. GPAI focuses on collaboration across governments on AI regulations, algorithms, compute capacity, and ethical frameworks. It aims to avoid duplication of efforts by acting as a central body. The organization emphasizes inclusion of the Global South, which has been underrepresented, and works on AI applications in healthcare, agriculture, and other sectors.

Why in news?

India, as the current chair, is leading efforts to make GPAI the apex global authority on AI regulation, expanding membership and influence to include more developing nations and OECD countries.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries – Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Established in 1981, the GCC aims to encourage economic, security, and cultural cooperation among its members. The council has a unified customs tariff and a common market, but efforts toward a single currency have stalled. The GCC also coordinates joint military ventures and diplomatic policies. Its headquarters is in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The GCC’s economic output is largely driven by oil and gas exports, making it a key player in global energy markets.

Why in news?

The U.K. government announced plans to begin trade talks with the Gulf Cooperation Council as part of its new trade strategy to boost economic ties with key global regions.

Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers

The Helsinki Rules, adopted in 1966 by the International Law Association, are a set of guidelines for the equitable and reasonable use of transboundary rivers. They emphasize cooperation, prevention of harm, and equitable sharing of water resources among riparian states. Although not legally binding, the rules have influenced international water law and treaties. They address issues like water quantity, quality, and dispute resolution. The Helsinki Rules were the first major attempt to codify principles for managing international river basins fairly and sustainably.

Why in news?

The Helsinki Rules are relevant to the India-Bangladesh negotiations on sharing the waters of the Teesta River, denoting international legal frameworks guiding such treaties.

Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) is an intergovernmental organization established in 1997 to strengthen regional cooperation among countries bordering the Indian Ocean. It has 23 member states from Africa, Asia, and Australia. IORA focuses on maritime security, trade facilitation, fisheries management, disaster risk reduction, and cultural exchange. It promotes the blue economy and sustainable development in the Indian Ocean region. IORA operates through various working groups and holds annual ministerial meetings. Its secretariat is based in Durban, South Africa.

Why in news?

India, Indonesia, and Australia explored collaboration opportunities under IORA mechanisms during their trilateral dialogue to enhance maritime domain awareness and blue economy cooperation.

Indo-Pacific Four (IP-4)

The Indo-Pacific Four (IP-4) refers to Australia, Japan, New Zealand, and South Korea, countries outside NATO’s traditional Euro-Atlantic area but engaged in strategic cooperation with the alliance. They have attended three successive NATO summits, reflecting growing security concerns over China’s regional ambitions and Russia’s military ties with China and North Korea. The IP-4 work with NATO on issues like cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, disinformation, and support for Ukraine. Their involvement signals NATO’s expanding focus beyond the North Atlantic to address global security challenges in the Indo-Pacific region.

Why in news?

The IP-4 attended the July 2024 NATO summit in Washington, denoting NATO’s increased cooperation with Indo-Pacific partners amid rising tensions involving China, Taiwan, and Russia’s war in Ukraine.

Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)

The Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) is an India-led multilateral framework launched in 2019 to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region. It focuses on maritime security, sustainable ocean economy, marine ecology, disaster risk reduction, and capacity building among regional countries. IPOI encourages cooperation in scientific research, technology sharing, and infrastructure development. It complements other regional efforts like the Quad and ASEAN-led forums but emphasizes ocean governance and environmental sustainability. Bangladesh’s joining IPOI marks its increasing engagement in Indo-Pacific maritime affairs and regional security collaborations.

Why in news?

During Sheikh Hasina’s visit to India, Bangladesh agreed to join the IPOI, signaling deeper cooperation on maritime security and ocean economy within the Indo-Pacific region.

Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)

The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), founded in 1889, is the global organization of national parliaments. It promotes democratic governance, accountability, and cooperation among parliaments worldwide. The IPU publishes the Monthly ranking of women in national parliaments, tracking gender representation globally. It comprises over 180 national parliaments as members. The IPU also facilitates dialogue on peace, security, and human rights. It was the first international organization to bring together parliamentarians across borders, predating the United Nations. Its secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The IPU works closely with the UN to advance democratic norms.

Why in news?

The IPU’s April 2024 ranking placed India at 143 for women’s representation in national parliaments, denoting the country’s low gender parity in political participation.

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), 1965

The ICERD is a United Nations treaty adopted in 1965 aimed at eliminating racial discrimination worldwide. Article 3 specifically obliges states to eradicate apartheid and racial segregation. It also requires states to prohibit and eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms, including laws and policies that create systemic inequality. The convention is monitored by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), which reviews state reports and issues recommendations. It is one of the key human rights instruments addressing racial discrimination globally.

Why in news?

The ICJ cited ICERD in July 2024 when ruling that Israeli laws and measures in occupied Palestinian territories constitute systemic racial discrimination and segregation.

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, established in 1945 and based in The Hague. It has 15 judges from different countries serving nine-year terms. The ICJ settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on international legal questions. Its rulings are binding on parties involved but enforcement depends on UN Security Council action. The court’s opinions, like the recent one on Israel’s occupation, are often non-binding advisory opinions. It has previously ruled on issues like the legality of Israel’s West Bank separation barrier in 2004.

Why in news?

The ICJ issued a non-binding opinion declaring Israel’s presence in Palestinian territories unlawful and called for an end to the occupation, amid ongoing conflict and settlement expansion.

International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)

The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) is a multi-modal network of ship, rail, and road routes connecting India, Iran, Russia, and Europe. It aims to reduce transit time and costs for trade between South Asia and Northern Europe by bypassing traditional routes such as the Suez Canal. INSTC covers approximately 7,200 kilometers and is expected to cut transport time by 30-40%. The corridor enhances connectivity across Eurasia and facilitates increased trade volumes, especially between resource-rich regions like Russia’s Far East and India. It is a key project for boosting regional economic integration and strategic cooperation.

Why in news?

India and Russia announced plans to increase trade volumes via INSTC during their 22nd annual summit, emphasizing enhanced connectivity and economic cooperation in Eurasia.

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)

The JCPOA is a 2015 nuclear agreement between Iran and the P5+1 countries plus the EU, aiming to limit Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for sanction relief. It capped uranium enrichment at 3.67% and imposed limits on uranium stockpiles. The deal allowed international inspections by the IAEA to ensure compliance. The US withdrew under President Trump in 2018, leading Iran to resume enrichment up to 60%. The JCPOA’s collapse increased regional tensions and economic hardship in Iran. Efforts to revive it have stalled but remain central to Iran’s diplomacy and economic prospects.

Why in news?

Pezeshkian supports restoring the JCPOA to lift sanctions and promote peaceful nuclear activities, aiming to rebuild international trust and economic stability.

M23 Rebel Group

The M23 rebel group is an armed faction active in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, primarily in the North Kivu region. Named after the March 23, 2009 peace agreement they claim was violated, the group has been involved in ongoing conflict with the Congolese government. Their fighting has displaced approximately 750,000 people, creating humanitarian crises including overcrowded camps near Goma. The instability caused by M23 contributes to poor living conditions that exacerbate disease outbreaks like mpox. The group’s activities have drawn international attention due to the region’s strategic mineral wealth and persistent violence.

Why in news?

The M23 conflict has displaced hundreds of thousands, indirectly worsening the mpox outbreak by forcing people into crowded camps where the virus spreads easily.

Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC)

Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) is a sub-regional initiative launched in 2000 to enhance economic and cultural cooperation between six countries – India, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. It aims to promote tourism, culture, education, and transport connectivity along the Mekong and Ganga river basins. The cooperation includes Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) to boost development in member countries. MGC marks the historical and civilizational links between South and Southeast Asia, encouraging regional integration and people-to-people ties.

Why in news?

India and Laos exchanged MoUs on 10 Quick Impact Projects under Mekong Ganga Cooperation during External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar’s visit to Laos.

National People’s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee

The National People’s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee is China’s top legislative body responsible for reviewing and approving laws between full NPC sessions. It conducts multiple reviews of bills, typically requiring three readings before passage. The Committee plays a critical role in shaping major national legislation, including financial laws. It ensures legal frameworks align with government policy priorities. The NPC Standing Committee also supervises the implementation of laws and can interpret the constitution and statutes. Its decisions influence China’s regulatory environment, including recent moves toward stronger financial risk management.

Why in news?

The NPC Standing Committee recently conducted the second review of China’s financial stability law, a key step before the bill’s expected passage.

North Atlantic Council (NAC)

The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is NATO’s principal political decision-making body composed of permanent representatives (ambassadors) from all 32 member countries. It meets almost weekly at NATO headquarters in Brussels and convenes at ministerial and summit levels. The NAC operates by consensus, meaning every member has a veto power over decisions. It is chaired by the NATO Secretary-General, who currently is Jens Stoltenberg until October 2024. The council oversees NATO’s policies and operations, including defense planning, partnerships, and crisis management. It ensures coordination among members and represents the collective voice of the alliance.

Why in news?

The NAC’s role was emphasized as NATO leaders met to reaffirm support for Ukraine and coordinate defense strategies at the 75th anniversary summit.

Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS)

The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) is a permanent organ of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) focused on counter-terrorism cooperation. Established in 2004 and headquartered in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, it facilitates intelligence sharing, coordinates joint counter-terrorism exercises, and monitors terrorist and drug trafficking activities across member states. RATS plays a critical role in uniting SCO members on security threats despite their political differences. It also analyzes intelligence on extremist groups and helps synchronize law enforcement efforts. It is unique for operating within a politically diverse group, including countries with tense bilateral relations.

Why in news?

RATS is as it supports SCO’s security agenda, providing a platform for India and other members to collaborate on counter-terrorism during the July 2024 SCO Summit in Astana.

Rim of the Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC)

RIMPAC is the world’s largest international maritime warfare exercise, held biennially since 1971 around the Hawaiian Islands. It involves multiple phases including harbor and sea operations, amphibious landings, and joint task force coordination. The exercise features diverse participants from over 20 nations, with surface ships, submarines, aircraft, UAVs, and remotely piloted vessels. RIMPAC aims to enhance interoperability, build partnerships, and promote regional maritime security in the Indo-Pacific. It is led by the US Third Fleet, with a rotating Combined Task Force commander. RIMPAC 2024’s theme is Partners – Integrated and Prepared.

Why in news?

RIMPAC 2024 is underway in Hawaii with 29 nations participating, including India, showcasing multinational naval cooperation and readiness in the Indo-Pacific region.

Shanghai Five

The Shanghai Five was the precursor to the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, formed in 1996 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. It was created to resolve border disputes and enhance regional security following the Soviet Union’s collapse. The group focused on demilitarization and joint border control to prevent extremism and ethnic conflicts. In 2001, Uzbekistan joined, and the Shanghai Five evolved into the SCO, broadening its agenda to include economic and political cooperation. The Shanghai Five was notable for being one of the first post-Cold War regional security frameworks in Central Asia.

Why in news?

The origins of the SCO, which recently expanded with new members like Belarus, lie in the Shanghai Five, a foundational security alliance established in 1996.

Shebaa Farms

Shebaa Farms is a small disputed territory at the intersection of the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. It covers about 22 square kilometers and has been a contentious area since Israel captured it from Syria in 1967. Lebanon claims the territory as its own, supported by Syria, while Israel regards it as part of the Golan Heights. The area is strategically important due to its elevation and proximity to both Lebanon and Syria. Hezbollah has used Shebaa Farms as a justification for armed resistance against Israel, considering it Lebanese land under Israeli occupation.

Why in news?

Hezbollah has launched rocket attacks from southern Lebanon targeting Israeli military outposts in the Shebaa Farms amid escalating conflict.

Star Alliance

Star Alliance is the world’s largest global airline consortium, founded in 1997, comprising 26 member airlines. It offers extensive connectivity, frequent flyer benefits, and coordinated schedules for passengers across continents. Members share airport lounges, check-in facilities, and code-share agreements, enhancing travel convenience. Air India joined Star Alliance in 2014, which expanded its international reach. The alliance’s hub airports include Frankfurt, Singapore, and Chicago. Star Alliance promotes sustainability initiatives among members, focusing on reducing carbon footprints and improving fuel efficiency collectively.

Why in news?

Air India’s membership in Star Alliance supports its ambition to become a world-class airline by enhancing global connectivity and passenger experience amid its ongoing transformation.

UNESCO World Heritage Committee

The UNESCO World Heritage Committee is responsible for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention, adopted in 1972. It meets annually to decide on new sites to be inscribed on the World Heritage List and oversees the protection of cultural and natural heritage worldwide. The committee consists of 21 elected member states serving four-year terms. It also monitors the state of conservation of listed sites and can place sites on the List of World Heritage in Danger. The committee’s decisions influence international cooperation and funding for heritage preservation projects globally.

Why in news?

The agreement between India and the US was signed on the sidelines of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee meeting held in New Delhi, denoting the importance of cultural heritage protection.

Windsor Agreement

The Windsor Agreement refers to the post-Brexit arrangements specifically addressing trade and customs between mainland Britain and Northern Ireland. It aims to prevent a hard border on the island of Ireland while allowing Northern Ireland to maintain alignment with certain EU single market rules. This agreement is crucial for preserving the Good Friday Agreement peace process. It involves complex regulatory checks on goods moving between Great Britain and Northern Ireland, creating political tensions within the UK. The Windsor Agreement is distinct from the broader UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement and remains a contentious topic in UK politics.

Why in news?

The Windsor Agreement and Northern Ireland’s trading arrangements have been a prominent issue in the 2024 UK general election campaign, reflecting ongoing tensions about Brexit’s impact on the UK’s internal market.

World Heritage Committee (WHC)

The World Heritage Committee (WHC) is composed of 21 State Parties elected by the UNESCO General Assembly, responsible for implementing the World Heritage Convention. It meets annually to decide on the inscription of new sites, conservation policies, and funding. Established under the 1972 World Heritage Convention, the committee oversees 1,199 properties inscribed by 168 State Parties. Members serve four-year terms; India is currently in its fourth term (2021-2025). The WHC balances cultural and natural heritage preservation globally, with a mandate to protect sites of “outstanding universal value” for future generations.

Why in news?

The 46th session of the WHC is being held in India for the first time from July 21-31, 2024, marking event in India’s cultural diplomacy and heritage management efforts.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1967 to promote the protection of intellectual property worldwide. It administers 26 international treaties and facilitates a global patent system called the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), allowing inventors to seek patent protection in multiple countries through a single application. WIPO’s patent database contains millions of records and is a key resource for innovation tracking. Rarely known is that WIPO also supports alternative dispute resolution for IP conflicts and runs global competitions to encourage creativity and innovation.

Why in news?

WIPO provided data showing China leads in generative AI patent filings, with over six times more applications than the U.S. between 2014-2023, denoting global innovation trends.

Social Development & Government Schemes

Agristack

Agristack is a digital public infrastructure initiative aimed at creating a unified data repository of Indian farmers, integrating identity, land records, crop details, loans, insurance, and revenue history. It combines data from three main registries – farmers registry, geo-referenced village maps, and crop sown registry. The system assigns a unique digital ID to farmers linked with Aadhaar and land records. It uses GIS-GPS, AI/ML, and satellite data from ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre for near real-time crop information. Pilots are underway in states like Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, targeting enrollment of over six crore farmers by 2024-end.

Why in news?

Agristack is being implemented as part of India’s 2024-25 budget to formalize land records and improve agricultural data management for better government schemes and market access.

Ahilyabai Holkar Scheme

The Ahilyabai Holkar scheme is a Maharashtra state government initiative aimed at promoting women’s education and empowerment. Named after the 18th-century queen Ahilyabai Holkar, known for her administrative acumen and social reforms, the scheme provides scholarships and financial aid to female students. Beneficiaries increased from 7.12 lakh in 2021-22 to 22.33 lakh in 2022-23, reflecting boost in funding and outreach. The program supports higher education, skill development, and vocational training to enhance women’s socio-economic status in Maharashtra.

Why in news?

The economic survey reports increased expenditure and beneficiary numbers under the Ahilyabai Holkar scheme, denoting the government’s focus on women’s education.

AMRIT (Affordable Medicines and Reliable Implants for Treatment)

AMRIT is a government initiative launched to provide affordable, high-quality medicines and medical implants at concessional rates through designated outlets. It aims to reduce out-of-pocket expenditure on essential drugs and implants, especially for low-income groups. AMRIT stores are often located in government hospitals and health facilities. A lesser-known fact is that AMRIT also focuses on quality assurance by procuring medicines from WHO-GMP certified manufacturers. The program complements other schemes like PM Jan Aushadhi Kendras but specifically includes implants, which are typically more expensive and less accessible in rural areas.

Why in news?

The Economic Survey 2023-2024 mentioned AMRIT as part of government efforts to improve healthcare affordability and reduce out-of-pocket expenditure.

Anandakrishnan Committee

The Anandakrishnan Committee was a government-appointed panel in Tamil Nadu tasked with reforming professional course admissions in the 1980s. It recommended abolishing entrance exams for medical and engineering courses, instead using higher secondary school marks for admissions. This system aimed to promote social equity and reduce the stress and corruption associated with entrance tests. The committee’s recommendations remain influential, with Tamil Nadu still using this merit-based system for engineering admissions. Its work contrasts with the national NEET system, denoting different approaches to educational selection within India’s federal structure.

Why in news?

The committee is referenced to illustrate Tamil Nadu’s historical and ongoing alternative to NEET, emphasizing state-level autonomy in admissions policy.

Community Forest Rights (CFR)

Community Forest Rights (CFR) are legal entitlements under the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. CFR grants tribal and forest-dwelling communities the right to own, manage, and use forest resources sustainably. It allows communities to sell non-timber forest produce (NTFP) like kendu leaves independently, bypassing government contractors. CFR aims to empower indigenous populations by recognizing their traditional forest-based livelihoods and protecting their rights against state or commercial exploitation. These rights include ownership, access, and management, strengthening local governance through bodies like Gram Sabhas.

Why in news?

Tribal communities in Odisha are exercising their CFR to sell kendu leaves directly, challenging forest department regulations that label such sales illegal, leading to a legal and economic conflict.

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) refers to open, interoperable digital systems that support public services like identity verification, payments, and data exchange. India’s DPI includes platforms such as 1.4 billion Aadhaar enrollments and facilitates over 10 million daily e-KYC transactions. DPI enables direct benefit transfers, helping save around $41 billion by reducing leakages. It supports financial inclusion by granting access to bank accounts for nearly 500 million individuals. DPI is designed to be universally applicable, promoting sovereignty and data ownership while encouraging plug-and-play deployment models for ease of adoption globally.

Why in news?

India’s G20 task force on DPI recommends plug-and-play models for global adoption, emphasizing sovereignty and interoperability to support financial inclusion and public service delivery in developing nations.

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) in Agriculture

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) in agriculture is an initiative to digitally map farmers and their land holdings across India within three years. It involves creating a unique land parcel identification number (ULPIN) and digitisation of land records to facilitate faster agricultural credit flow and better resource management. DPI aims to improve transparency, enhance access to credit, and support targeted policy implementation. This digital framework integrates with ongoing reforms in land and agriculture sectors and supports schemes like natural farming and drone delivery through self-help groups.

Why in news?

The Union Budget 2024-25 announced the implementation of DPI in agriculture to cover all farmers and their lands digitally, facilitating credit and resource allocation.

Extremely Backward Caste (EBC)

The Extremely Backward Caste (EBC) category is a sub-classification within the Other Backward Classes (OBC) in some state of Indias, notably Bihar. EBCs are considered socially and educationally more disadvantaged than the general OBCs. In Bihar, the 2023 caste survey estimated EBCs to constitute about 36% of the population, contributing to a combined 63% share with OBCs. EBCs have distinct political significance due to their large numbers and socio-economic status. However, in Uttar Pradesh, there is no separate EBC category; they are grouped under OBCs. EBCs often demand greater political representation and affirmative action beyond existing OBC reservations.

Why in news?

The 2024 Lok Sabha elections saw the INDIA alliance gaining support from EBC voters in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, challenging the NDA’s traditional hold on this demographic.

Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP)

The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) is a decentralized disease surveillance system launched by the Government of India in 2004. It aims to detect and respond to outbreaks of communicable diseases quickly. IDSP collects weekly data from health facilities across states and districts, enabling timely identification of disease clusters and trends. It integrates epidemiological, laboratory, and entomological data for vector-borne diseases such as Zika, dengue, and chikungunya. IDSP uses both conventional and modern digital reporting tools, linking state health departments with national agencies like the National Centre for Disease Control. The program supports evidence-based public health interventions.

Why in news?

The Union Government has directed states to report Zika virus cases directly to the IDSP for coordinated nationwide surveillance and control efforts.

Justice Hema Commission

The Justice Hema Commission was a three-member committee formed by the Kerala government in July 2017, headed by retired Kerala High Court judge K Hema. It investigated sexual harassment, wage disparity, and gender inequality in the Malayalam film industry. The commission compiled a 300-page report with documents, audio, and video evidence, revealing the existence of a casting couch and the use of alcohol and drugs on film sets. It recommended establishing a tribunal to investigate allegations. The report was submitted in December 2019 but was not publicly released for nearly five years due to confidentiality and legal concerns.

Why in news?

The Kerala High Court stayed the release of the Justice Hema Commission report on July 24, 2024, preventing its public disclosure amid privacy and public interest concerns raised by a film producer.

Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987

The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 is a key legislation in India that provides free legal services to the weaker sections of society and establishes Lok Adalats for alternative dispute resolution. It created the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) and State Legal Services Authorities to implement legal aid programs. The Act aims to ensure access to justice for all, especially marginalized groups. It also mandates the organization of Lok Adalats to promote settlement of disputes outside traditional courts. The Act is fundamental in institutionalizing legal aid and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in India’s judicial framework.

Why in news?

The Act underpins the special Lok Adalat conducted by the Supreme Court in July 2024, enabling the court to resolve cases amicably and reduce the backlog efficiently.

Lok Adalat

Lok Adalats are alternative dispute resolution forums established under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 in India. They aim to resolve disputes amicably and quickly, including both pending court cases and pre-litigation matters. Lok Adalats handle cases such as matrimonial disputes, property conflicts, motor accident claims, land acquisition, compensation, and labor issues. Decisions made by Lok Adalats are final and binding on all parties, with no appeal allowed. They are cost-effective, as no court fees are charged, and encourage voluntary settlements. Lok Adalats play a vital role in reducing the judicial backlog in India’s legal system.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court of India organized its first-ever special Lok Adalat from July 29 to August 2, 2024, to address over 2,200 pending cases and reduce the backlog as part of its 75th anniversary celebrations.

Mahila Samakhya

Mahila Samakhya is a flagship Government of India program launched in 1989 aimed at empowering rural women through education. It focuses on promoting literacy, gender equality, and social awareness among women in marginalized communities. The program uses a participatory approach, encouraging women to form collectives and engage in decision-making. It played a key role in improving girls’ education in rural areas by addressing socio-cultural barriers. The initiative is notable for involving women as educators and leaders, encouraging community ownership. Mahila Samakhya has been implemented in several states and is recognized for its innovative approach to female education and empowerment.

Why in news?

The program’s impact is cited as a factor in increased girls’ enrollment following the expansion of schools, especially in rural India, as mentioned by a former national director.

Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA)

MPEDA is a government agency under India’s Ministry of Commerce and Industry, responsible for the development and promotion of the seafood industry. Established in 1972, it focuses on increasing seafood exports, improving aquaculture practices, and ensuring quality standards. MPEDA sets guidelines for sustainable fishing, aquaculture, and processing. It also monitors antibiotic residues in seafood exports to meet international standards, preventing shipment rejections. MPEDA’s role includes recommending regulatory actions to other government departments, such as its 2023 proposal to ban certain antibiotics in aquaculture to protect export markets like the EU, US, and Japan.

Why in news?

MPEDA submitted a proposal to ban chloramphenicol and nitrofurans in food animal production to safeguard the seafood export industry from antibiotic contamination and comply with strict international regulations.

Missing Middle

The Missing Middle refers to the approximately 30% of India’s population that lacks health insurance coverage. This group mainly includes the self-employed in agriculture and non-agriculture sectors, informal and semi-formal workers in rural and urban areas. The missing middle spans multiple income and expenditure quintiles and is not a homogeneous group. It remains uncovered due to gaps in existing government and private insurance schemes. The NITI Aayog’s 2021 report brought into light the need for low-cost, comprehensive insurance products tailored to this segment to improve financial protection against health expenses.

Why in news?

NITI Aayog’s report on the missing middle is cited as a basis for expanding health coverage under Ayushman Bharat, aiming to address insurance gaps.

Mukhya Mantri Majhi Ladki Bahin Yojana

The Mukhya Mantri Majhi Ladki Bahin Yojana is a welfare scheme launched by the Maharashtra government aimed at supporting underprivileged women aged 21-60. It provides a monthly financial aid of Rs 1,500 to married, divorced, and destitute women whose annual family income does not exceed Rs 2.5 lakh. The scheme targets economic upliftment and social security in the Marathwada region. It was introduced in the state budget of 2024 and focuses on women’s empowerment, especially in rural areas where the majority of applications have been received.

Why in news?

Over 9.27 lakh women have applied for the scheme in the Marathwada region as of July 2024, showing strong response particularly from rural districts.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) measures poverty using multiple deprivations in health, education, and living standards, unlike income-based poverty metrics. It was developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative and the UNDP in 2010. MPI uses 10 indicators grouped into three dimensions – health (nutrition, child mortality), education (years of schooling, school attendance), and living standards (electricity, sanitation, water, flooring, cooking fuel, assets). A person is considered multidimensionally poor if deprived in at least one-third of the weighted indicators. India has used MPI to track poverty reduction beyond income, denoting regional disparities and policy impacts.

Why in news?

India’s economic survey 2023-24 reported a sharp decline in multidimensional poverty from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, showing progress in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Namo Drone Didi Scheme

The Namo Drone Didi scheme is an initiative to provide drones to 15,000 women self-help groups (SHGs) during 2023-24 to 2025-26. These drones will be used for rental services to assist farmers, improving agricultural efficiency. The scheme is funded with Rs 500 crore. It empowers women SHGs by integrating technology in agriculture, promoting entrepreneurship and rural employment. The drones can be used for crop monitoring, pesticide spraying, and other farm-related activities. This scheme represents a novel approach to agricultural modernization by combining drone technology with women-led community groups.

Why in news?

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced the Rs 500 crore allocation for the Namo Drone Didi scheme in the 2024-25 budget to support women SHGs and enhance agricultural services through drone technology.

National Legal Services Authority (NALSA)

The National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) was established in India in 1995 under the Legal Services Authorities Act. It provides free legal aid and advice to marginalized and vulnerable groups, ensuring access to justice as a constitutional right. NALSA organizes Lok Adalats (people’s courts) for speedy dispute resolution. It supervises state legal services authorities and coordinates legal aid activities nationwide. NALSA also promotes legal literacy and awareness campaigns. Its mandate includes assisting undertrials, convicts, women, children, and persons with disabilities. NALSA’s work is critical in reducing the backlog of cases and promoting equitable justice across India.

Why in news?

NALSA lawyers, under Vijay Hansaria’s supervision, have surveyed over 15,000 convicts across 18 states to ensure their right to appeal is known and exercised.

National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) of India

The NVBDCP is an Government of India program responsible for controlling vector-borne diseases such as dengue, malaria, chikungunya, and kala-azar. Established in 2003, it coordinates surveillance, prevention, and treatment strategies nationwide. The program collects data on disease incidence and implements vector control measures like insecticide spraying and public awareness campaigns. NVBDCP reported a 75% decline in dengue cases in 2020 compared to 2019, attributed to COVID-19 lockdowns and reduced vector exposure. It plays a critical role in managing outbreaks and guiding public health policy in India.

Why in news?

NVBDCP data brought into light a sharp decline in dengue cases during 2020, coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic, which is relevant to studies on dengue’s impact on COVID-19 severity.

NIPUN Bharat Mission

The NIPUN Bharat Mission (National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with About and Numeracy) was launched on July 5, 2021 by the Government of India to ensure foundational literacy and numeracy skills by Grade 3. It includes a specially designed framework for early education stages, focusing on teacher training and tailored teaching-learning materials. The mission prioritizes early grade learning and involves collaboration between schools and families. It is implemented across many states with the goal of universal foundational proficiency. The framework was released before those for higher education stages, denoting the focus on early childhood education.

Why in news?

NIPUN Bharat Mission is brought into light as a key part of the implementation of the National Education Policy 2020, focusing on foundational literacy and numeracy for children up to Grade 3, with renewed emphasis post-pandemic.

Nishad Community

The Nishad community is an umbrella group of about 20 riverine sub-castes primarily in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, traditionally engaged in fishing, boatmanship, and sand mining. Politically, they started identifying as a unified entity after the Mandal Commission report. They constitute roughly 9% of Bihar’s population and are considered part of the EBC category in UP. Their core demands include rights over rivers and river produce, and political representation. The community has been politically mobilized by leaders like Sanjay Nishad and Mukesh Sahani and has shifted allegiances from BJP to the INDIA alliance in 2024.

Why in news?

The Nishad community played a decisive role in the 2024 elections, with their votes influencing multiple constituencies in UP and Bihar, marking a shift toward the INDIA alliance.

ODF Plus Classification

The Open Defecation Free (ODF) Plus classification is an advanced sanitation status in India. It assesses villages based on sustained ODF status and waste management systems. There are three categories – Aspiring (basic solid waste management), Rising (both solid and liquid waste management), and Model (exceeding standards with visual cleanliness and IEC promotion). This classification ensures long-term sanitation improvements beyond just ending open defecation. It integrates solid and liquid waste management with community awareness. The system is part of India’s larger Swachh Bharat Mission to improve rural sanitation and hygiene sustainably.

Why in news?

The Ministry of Jal Shakti reported that 5,47,283 Indian villages have achieved ODF Plus status, with many classified as Model villages, denoting progress in rural sanitation efforts as of July 2024.

Panchamasali Lingayats

The Panchamasali Lingayats are a dominant agrarian sub-sect of the Lingayat community in Karnataka, making up about 70% of the state’s Lingayat population and around 85 lakh people. They seek 2A category reservation under the OBC list, which offers better benefits than the 2D category they currently hold. The community follows the teachings of 12th-century philosopher Saint Basavanna, who initiated a reformist movement against caste discrimination. The Lingayats are distinct from Veerashaivas but share religious roots. The Panchamasalis mainly engage in agriculture and cite social and economic backwardness to justify their demand for enhanced reservation status.

Why in news?

The Panchamasali Lingayats intensified their demand for 2A category reservation in Karnataka in July 2024, planning a gathering of lawyers in Bengaluru to press the state government for this change.

PARAKH

PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) is a standard-setting body established under the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) as mandated by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. It aims to ensure equivalence and benchmarking across India’s diverse school boards by setting standards in administration, curriculum, assessment, inclusiveness, and infrastructure. PARAKH recommends cumulative assessments from Class 9 to 12, development of professional paper setters, and standardized question paper blueprints. It also proposes periodic school affiliation reviews and mechanisms to prevent exam malpractice. PARAKH monitors implementation of these reforms across boards.

Why in news?

PARAKH recently submitted an ‘equivalence’ report to the Ministry of Education recommending how academic standards across India’s 69 school boards can be standardized without enforcing uniformity, as part of NEP 2020 implementation.

Right to Disconnect

The Right to Disconnect is a labor law concept originating in France in 2017, granting employees the legal right to ignore work-related electronic communications outside working hours. It aims to reduce burnout and improve work-life balance. The law requires companies with over 50 employees to negotiate policies on after-hours communication. This concept has since been adopted by countries like Belgium, Kenya, and Australia, each tailoring it to local labor laws. A lesser-known fact is that the European Union has recommended member states adopt similar measures as part of broader digital work-life balance directives.

Why in news?

The UK Labour government, led by Deputy Prime Minister Angela Rayner, is proposing similar “right to disconnect” reforms to allow workers to ignore emails and calls outside work hours, inspired by the French model.

Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 is an Indian law that replaced the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995. It expanded the list of recognized disabilities from 7 to 21 categories, including visual and mental impairments. The act mandates accessibility, non-discrimination, and equal opportunities in education, employment, and public services for disabled persons. It also provides for reservation in government jobs and educational institutions. The law aligns with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, ratified by India in 2007.

Why in news?

Pooja Khedkar’s appointment as an IAS officer was cleared after her affidavit citing disability was accepted under this act, despite initial court rejections.

Rohini Commission

The Rohini Commission was constituted to examine sub-categorisation within the OBC reservation quota to address disparities. It found that approximately 97% of reserved jobs and educational seats at the central level were occupied by only about 25% of OBC castes/sub-castes. Nearly 1,000 of the 2,600 OBC communities had zero representation. The commission’s work marks concentration of benefits within a small segment of OBC groups, calling for a more equitable distribution through sub-categorisation. Its recommendations aim to make reservation policies more inclusive and address underrepresentation among marginalized OBC communities.

Why in news?

The Rohini Commission’s findings are cited in debates about reforming reservation sub-categorisation to ensure fairer access for all OBC communities.

Shompen

The Shompen are a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) residing primarily in the interior forests of Great Nicobar Island. They are one of the least studied tribes in India, with a population estimated to be fewer than 300 individuals. The Shompen are traditionally hunter-gatherers and rely heavily on forest resources for subsistence. Their language is distinct and largely undocumented. They maintain a semi-nomadic lifestyle with minimal contact with outsiders. The Shompen have a unique culture and social structure, with no formal leadership system. They are protected under various Indian laws due to their vulnerability and isolation.

Why in news?

The Shompen have been excluded from the public hearing process on the Social Impact Assessment for the Great Nicobar mega infrastructure project, despite being among the most affected indigenous groups.

SPARK (Systematic Progressive Analytical Real Time Ranking)

SPARK is an analytical framework used under the National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY-NULM) to rank states based on their urban livelihood program performance. It uses real-time data to evaluate progress systematically and progressively. The ranking considers factors like implementation efficiency, fund utilization, and beneficiary outreach. Kerala topped the SPARK rankings in 2024, followed by Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. SPARK helps policymakers identify best practices and areas needing improvement in urban livelihood schemes, ensuring transparent and data-driven governance.

Why in news?

Kerala topped the SPARK rankings in the National Urban Livelihood Mission, reflecting its effectiveness in implementing urban livelihood initiatives compared to other states.

Subhadra Scheme

The Subhadra scheme is a financial assistance program launched by the Odisha government aimed at empowering women economically. It provides direct monetary support to women beneficiaries to promote self-reliance and entrepreneurship. The scheme targets women from marginalized communities and seeks to improve their socio-economic status through financial inclusion. It is part of Odisha’s broader efforts to enhance women’s participation in the workforce and decision-making processes. The government allocated Rs 10,000 crore for this scheme in the 2024-25 budget, reflecting its significance in the state’s social welfare agenda.

Why in news?

The Subhadra scheme received a substantial budget allocation of Rs 10,000 crore in Odisha’s 2024-25 fiscal budget, denoting the government’s focus on women’s empowerment.

SVANidhi Scheme

The SVANidhi scheme (PM Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi) was launched in 2020 by the Government of India to provide collateral-free microloans up to Rs 50,000 to urban street vendors. It aims to support vendors impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The scheme also offers incentives for timely loan repayment and digital transactions. It promotes financial inclusion by linking street vendors to formal banking channels. The scheme has been implemented across all state of Indias and UTs, with states competing for performance rankings based on loan disbursal and innovation in implementation.

Why in news?

Madhya Pradesh secured first place under the ‘Best Performing State’ category in the SVANidhi scheme, denoting its success in supporting urban street vendors through microcredit during the pandemic recovery phase.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive lifetime. A TFR of 2.1 children per woman is considered the replacement level, necessary to keep a population stable without migration. India’s TFR has dropped from 6.18 in 1950 to 1.91 in 2021, below replacement level, indicating population decline unless offset by immigration. The decline is influenced by economic, social, and biological factors. Globally, fertility rates have declined by about 50% over 70 years, impacting demographics, economies, and social structures worldwide.

Why in news?

Recent studies, including one in The Lancet, show India’s fertility decline and predict further drops by 2050 and 2100, raising demographic and policy concerns.

Vivaad Se Vishwas Scheme

The Vivaad Se Vishwas scheme, launched by the Government of India in 2020, aims to resolve pending tax disputes and contractual claims efficiently. It offers taxpayers and contractors a one-time opportunity to settle disputes by paying disputed amounts with a waiver of interest and penalties. The scheme primarily targets indirect tax disputes but has been extended to cover contractual disputes with MSMEs affected during the Covid period. By December 2023, it had facilitated settlements worth over Rs 2,302 crore. The deadline for submitting claims under this scheme was set for October 31, 2024.

Why in news?

The scheme is brought into light due to its role in settling contractual disputes and claims of MSMEs who failed to comply with government contracts during the Covid period, aiding in reducing litigation backlog.

Defence

2% NATO Defense Spending Requirement

The 2% NATO defense spending requirement is a guideline set by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for member countries to allocate at least 2% of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to defense budgets. Established in 2014 to ensure collective security and burden-sharing, this target aims to maintain military readiness and modernization. As of 2024, only a handful of NATO members meet or exceed this threshold, with countries like the US consistently surpassing it. The requirement has caused political debates within the alliance, particularly regarding US expectations for European members to increase their defense spending.

Why in news?

Trump has suggested cutting US aid to NATO members that do not meet the 2% defense spending requirement, potentially increasing Europe’s defense budget burden.

210 CoBRA Battalion, CRPF

The 210 CoBRA Battalion is a specialized unit of the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) in India, trained for counter-insurgency and jungle warfare. CoBRA stands for “Commando Battalion for Resolute Action,” formed in 2000 to combat Naxalite insurgents. These battalions operate mainly in forested and difficult terrains. The 210th battalion is part of this elite force, known for high-risk operations against insurgent groups. Members receive advanced training in guerrilla tactics, survival skills, and intelligence gathering. The unit’s personnel have been awarded multiple gallantry honors for their role in internal security operations.

Why in news?

Four personnel from the 210 CoBRA Battalion were posthumously awarded the Kirti Chakra for exceptional bravery in counter-insurgency operations.

Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) in Kargil War

Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) affected many soldiers during the Kargil War due to the extreme altitudes ranging from 2,676 m to over 5,500 m. Symptoms included headaches, nausea, appetite loss, muscular weakness, and fatigue caused by reduced oxygen levels and low air pressure. AMS impaired soldiers’ physical and mental performance, leading to casualties unrelated to enemy fire. The Indian Army initiated acclimatization programs mid-conflict to mitigate AMS effects. AMS also complicated the use of weapons and aircraft, as thin air reduced engine power and rotor efficiency. AMS remains a critical factor in high-altitude warfare and military planning.

Why in news?

AMS was a major physiological challenge faced by Indian soldiers during the Kargil War, a key focus in analyses on the 25th anniversary.

ADITI Scheme (Acing Development of Innovative Technologies with iDEX)

The ADITI scheme is a government initiative under the iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) framework, aimed at encouraging defence technology innovation by supporting startups and small enterprises. It provides up to 50% funding for product development, capped at ₹25 crore per project. Launched to encourage indigenous defence technology, ADITI supports projects in areas like artificial intelligence, drones, and advanced materials. The scheme is managed by the Defence Innovation Organisation and focuses on bridging the gap between research and operational deployment. It is relatively new and lesser-known outside defence circles but critical for self-reliance in defence tech.

Why in news?

The defence budget has allocated an additional ₹400 crore to the ADITI scheme to boost innovation in defence technology development.

Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) System

The Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) system allows conventional submarines to operate underwater for extended periods without surfacing or using snorkels. Unlike diesel-electric submarines that need oxygen from the surface, AIP uses fuel cells or Stirling engines to generate power underwater silently. This technology increases underwater endurance from a few days to up to two weeks. India’s DRDO developed a fuel cell-based AIP system, noted for its high safety and superior performance. The system will be integrated into the INS Kalvari submarine, enhancing stealth and operational effectiveness. AIP also reduces the submarine’s acoustic signature, making detection harder.

Why in news?

India’s DRDO has completed the development of an indigenous fuel cell-based AIP system, ready to be fitted on the INS Kalvari submarine during its major refit next year, boosting underwater endurance and stealth capabilities.

AK-203 Assault Rifle

The AK-203 is a modernized version of the AK-200 series, chambered for the 7.62x39mm cartridge. It features improved ergonomics, polymer furniture, and enhanced reliability compared to earlier Kalashnikov models. The AK-203 incorporates modern manufacturing techniques and materials to increase durability and reduce weight. It is designed for mass production and ease of maintenance. The rifle is produced under a technology transfer agreement between Russia and India, allowing full local manufacturing. It supports India’s goal of self-reliance in defense production and is used primarily by the Indian Army, with future plans for exports.

Why in news?

The AK-203 rifles have completed their first production phase at the Amethi factory, with 35,000 units delivered to the Indian Army as part of a ₹5,124 crore Indo-Russian joint venture.

Anatolian Phoenix

The Anatolian Phoenix is a multilateral air force exercise hosted by Turkey, involving various allied and partner nations. It focuses on joint training in air combat, interoperability, and tactical coordination among participating air forces. The exercise includes simulated air defense scenarios, electronic warfare, and joint mission planning. Anatolian Phoenix aims to enhance military cooperation, readiness, and strategic partnerships, particularly among NATO members and regional allies. Pakistan’s participation puts stress on its defense ties with Turkey and its interest in maintaining operational compatibility with allied forces. The exercise also serves as a platform for sharing technological advancements and tactics.

Why in news?

Pakistan confirmed its continued participation in the Anatolian Phoenix exercise during high-level defense talks with Turkey in June 2024.

Brahmaputra-class Guided Missile Frigate

The INS Brahmaputra is the lead ship of the Brahmaputra-class frigates, built indigenously by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers Limited in Kolkata and commissioned in 2000. It measures 125 meters in length, with a beam of 14.4 meters and a displacement of 5,300 tonnes. It can exceed speeds of 27 knots (50 km/h). The frigate is armed with medium-range, close-range, and anti-aircraft guns, surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missiles, and torpedo launchers. It supports Seaking and Chetak helicopters, performing roles like coastal patrolling, maritime diplomacy, and anti-piracy. The crew comprises 40 officers and 330 sailors.

Why in news?

The INS Brahmaputra suffered a major fire while undergoing refit at Mumbai Naval Dockyard in July 2024, prompting damage assessment and repair efforts.

Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs)

The CAPFs consist of seven paramilitary forces under India’s Ministry of Home Affairs, including the CRPF, BSF, CISF, ITBP, SSB, NSG, and Assam Rifles. They handle internal security, border protection, counter-insurgency, and anti-terrorism tasks. The sanctioned strength is over 1 million personnel, with around 84,000 vacancies as of July 2024. Recruitment is conducted through the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and Staff Selection Commission (SSC). CAPFs have recently introduced procedural reforms like reduced medical exam time and lowered cut-off marks to fill vacancies faster.

Why in news?

The Rajya Sabha was informed about ongoing recruitment efforts to fill 84,106 vacancies in CAPFs, including special provisions for ex-Agniveers to join these forces.

Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs)

Defence Public Sector Undertakings are government-owned corporations in India specializing in the production of defense equipment and systems. Established post-independence, DPSUs include entities like Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Bharat Electronics Limited. They produce a wide range of products, from aircraft and naval vessels to electronic warfare systems. DPSUs play a strategic role in India’s self-reliance in defense manufacturing under the ‘Make in India’ initiative. They collaborate with private industries and research institutions. DPSUs also engage in export activities and contribute to technological innovation in defense. Their production capacity and expertise support India’s armed forces modernization.

Why in news?

The Ministry of Defence released a new list of 346 items for exclusive procurement from Indian DPSUs to enhance indigenisation in defense manufacturing.

Defence Testing Infrastructure Scheme (DTIS)

The Defence Testing Infrastructure Scheme (DTIS) is a government initiative launched in May 2020 with an outlay of Rs 400 crore. It aims to create state-of-the-art testing facilities for defence equipment across India, supporting private and public sector collaboration. The scheme funds up to 75% of project costs as grants, with the remainder financed by special purpose vehicles (SPVs) comprising private and government entities. DTIS supports testing in critical domains like unmanned aerial systems, electronic warfare, and electro-optics, thereby promoting self-reliance in defence manufacturing and reducing dependency on imports.

Why in news?

The Ministry of Defence signed an MoU under DTIS to establish three cutting-edge testing facilities in Tamil Nadu.

Exercise Udara Shakti

Exercise Udara Shakti is a bilateral air force exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF). It focuses on enhancing interoperability and joint operational capabilities in the Southeast Asian region. The exercise typically includes air combat drills, tactical flying, and joint mission planning, aiming to strengthen defense ties and regional security cooperation. The 2024 edition is scheduled from August 5 to 9 at Kuantan, Malaysia, and involves advanced fighter aircraft and personnel exchanges to improve mutual understanding and coordination.

Why in news?

Following Exercise Pitch Black, the IAF will participate in Exercise Udara Shakti 2024 with the Royal Malaysian Air Force in Malaysia, continuing its engagement in regional military exercises.

Garhwal Rifles

The Garhwal Rifles is an infantry regiment of the Indian Army, raised in 1887 and primarily composed of soldiers from the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. Known for its valor and distinguished service, the regiment has participated in major conflicts including both World Wars, the 1962 Sino-Indian War, and the 1999 Kargil War. It is recognized for its mountain warfare capabilities and has earned numerous gallantry awards. The regiment’s insignia features a pair of crossed rifles and a bugle, symbolizing its light infantry role. It maintains strong regimental traditions and a regimental center in Lansdowne, Uttarakhand.

Why in news?

Lt Gen NS Raja Subramani was commissioned into the Garhwal Rifles in 1985, marking the start of his military career.

Hannibal Directive

The Hannibal Directive is an Israeli military protocol designed to prevent the capture of Israeli soldiers by using overwhelming force, even at the risk of harming the captured soldier. It was formulated in mid-1986 after the Jibril Agreement prisoner swap in 1985. The directive allows soldiers to use light arms fire or heavier military means, including attack helicopters, to stop abductors. The policy was kept secret until 2003 and has been criticized for disregarding human life. It was named after the Carthaginian general Hannibal, who chose death over capture by Romans.

Why in news?

The Hannibal Directive was reportedly used extensively during the Hamas attack on October 7, 2023, leading to casualties and military responses at multiple Israeli facilities infiltrated by Hamas fighters.

INS Brahmaputra

The INS Brahmaputra is a guided missile frigate of the Indian Navy, commissioned in 2000. It belongs to the Brahmaputra-class, designed for anti-submarine warfare, air defense, and surface warfare. The ship is equipped with Kh-35 Uran missiles, a 76mm gun, and torpedo launchers. Built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers in Kolkata, it has a displacement of around 3,600 tons and can reach speeds up to 30 knots. The frigate has participated in various naval exercises and anti-piracy operations. Its design is an evolution of the Godavari-class frigates, emphasizing improved stealth and combat capabilities.

Why in news?

INS Brahmaputra suffered a fire while undergoing refit at Naval Dockyard, Mumbai, causing it to list severely on its port side and remain tilted alongside the berth.

INS Kalvari

INS Kalvari is the first of the Scorpene-class submarines built by Mazagon Dockyard Limited (MDL) in India under a technology transfer agreement with France’s Naval Group. Commissioned in 2017, it is a diesel-electric attack submarine designed for anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare. The Kalvari-class submarines are 67 meters long and displace around 1,500 tons when submerged. They feature advanced sonar, torpedoes, and missile systems. The upcoming AIP retrofit will involve cutting the submarine into two halves to insert the new section, increasing its length and weight. It serves as a platform for integrating new indigenous technologies like the AIP.

Why in news?

INS Kalvari is scheduled for a major refit in 2025, where the new indigenous AIP system will be installed, enhancing its underwater endurance and operational capabilities.

INS Kavaratti

INS Kavaratti is an anti-submarine warfare stealth corvette of the Indian Navy, part of the Kamorta-class. It is named after the Kavaratti island in Lakshadweep. The ship features advanced stealth technology, including reduced radar cross-section and infrared signature. It is equipped with state-of-the-art sonar and torpedo launch systems for anti-submarine operations. Commissioned in 2021, INS Kavaratti is one of the first indigenously built warships with indigenous content, reflecting India’s growing naval self-reliance. It also has a helicopter deck for operating naval helicopters, enhancing its maritime surveillance and combat capabilities.

Why in news?

INS Kavaratti was awarded the Best Ship in Corvettes/OPVs/LSTs category at the Eastern Fleet Awards Function 2024 for its operational excellence.

INS Shivalik

INS Shivalik is an indigenously designed and built stealth guided missile frigate of the Indian Navy, weighing approximately 6000 tonnes. It belongs to the Shivalik-class, the first stealth warships built in India with reduced radar cross-section. Commissioned in 2010, it is equipped with advanced sensors, weapons, and electronic warfare systems. The ship can operate in multiple roles, including anti-air, anti-submarine, and anti-surface warfare. INS Shivalik features a combined diesel or gas (CODOG) propulsion system and has a top speed of over 30 knots. It is named after the Shivalik Hills in northern India.

Why in news?

INS Shivalik is participating in RIMPAC 2024, the world’s largest naval exercise held in Hawaii, demonstrating India’s naval reach and operational capabilities far from its home waters.

INS Vikramaditya

INS Vikramaditya is India’s modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier, originally the Soviet warship Admiral Gorshkov. Purchased from Russia in 2004, it underwent extensive refitting before commissioning into the Indian Navy in 2013. The carrier displaces about 45,000 tons and can carry up to 36 aircraft, including MiG-29K fighters. It is powered by steam turbines and features a ski-jump for short takeoff. The refit included removal of original missile systems and installation of modern Indian and Russian technology. INS Vikramaditya has been a key asset in India’s naval power projection and maritime security operations in the Indian Ocean.

Why in news?

Mentioned as a symbol of India-Russia defence ties, INS Vikramaditya represents decades of military cooperation during Modi’s visit to Moscow in July 2024.

Korwa Ordnance Factory

The Korwa Ordnance Factory, located in Amethi, Uttar Pradesh, is a key Indian defense manufacturing facility specializing in small arms production. It was established to produce modern rifles and related equipment domestically, reducing dependency on imports. The factory is equipped with advanced machinery shipped from Russia as part of the AK-203 production project. It supports the Government of India’s Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan initiatives by enabling 100% localization of rifle manufacturing. The factory was inaugurated in 2019 and plays important role in India’s strategic defense preparedness.

Why in news?

The Korwa Ordnance Factory has become fully operational for large-scale production of AK-203 rifles, delivering 35,000 units to the Indian Army in the first phase.

Madras Regiment

The Madras Regiment is one of the oldest infantry regiments of the Indian Army, established in 1758. It primarily recruits soldiers from South India. The regiment has participated in numerous conflicts including World Wars, Indo-Pak wars, and UN peacekeeping missions. It is known for its distinguished battle honors and unique regimental traditions such as the use of the bugle call The Madras Tune. The regiment’s insignia features a pair of crossed swords and a shield. It has a history of valor and has contributed troops to international peacekeeping exercises like Khaan Quest.

Why in news?

A battalion of the Madras Regiment, including women personnel, is part of the Indian contingent participating in the 2024 Khaan Quest peacekeeping exercise in Mongolia.

Nomadic Elephant

The Nomadic Elephant is an annual joint military exercise between India and Mongolia, initiated in 2009 to enhance counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism capabilities. It alternates locations between India and Mongolia, focusing on sub-conventional warfare in semi-urban and mountainous terrains. The exercise includes tactical drills like heliborne operations, intelligence sharing, drone and counter-drone deployment, and joint command post establishment. It operates under the United Nations Chapter VII mandate, which allows enforcement actions to maintain peace. The 16th edition is held at the Foreign Training Node in Umroi, Meghalaya. It encourages military cooperation and interoperability between both nations.

Why in news?

The 16th edition of the Nomadic Elephant exercise began in Meghalaya, involving Indian and Mongolian troops to enhance joint counter-insurgency operations under a UN mandate.

Operation Rhino

Operation Rhino was a counter-insurgency operation launched in the early 1990s in Assam to combat the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) and other insurgent groups. It involved coordinated efforts of the Indian Army and paramilitary forces to restore peace and stability in the region. The operation focused on intelligence-driven raids, area domination, and winning hearts and minds of local populations. It reduced insurgent activities but faced challenges due to difficult terrain and local support for militants. The operation is notable for pioneering modern counter-insurgency tactics in India’s northeast.

Why in news?

Lt Gen NS Raja Subramani commanded a battalion during Operation Rhino, denoting his experience in counter-insurgency operations in Assam.

Operation Sarp Vinaash

Operation Sarp Vinaash was a major Indian Army offensive conducted in 2003 near Hilkaka in the Poonch sector of Jammu and Kashmir. It involved aerial strikes targeting over 60 entrenched militants hiding in forest bunkers and trenches. The operation aimed to dismantle militant infrastructure and reduce insurgent presence in the region. It was one of the counter-terrorism efforts during that period, showcasing the use of coordinated air and ground tactics in difficult terrain. The success of the operation temporarily weakened militant networks in Poonch.

Why in news?

The operation is referenced amid renewed militant activity in Poonch and surrounding areas, indicating historical context of counter-insurgency efforts.

Sentinel Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

The Sentinel ICBM is a proposed new nuclear missile system mentioned in Project 2025 aimed at modernizing and expanding the US nuclear arsenal. It is intended to replace aging Cold War-era nuclear weapons and infrastructure. The missile would enhance the US’s strategic deterrence capabilities amid concerns over China’s military buildup. The plan includes accelerating its development and production, as well as resuming nuclear testing at the Nevada National Security Site, which would violate the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, to which the US is a signatory. This reflects shift toward nuclear weapons modernization.

Why in news?

Project 2025 prioritizes the Sentinel ICBM as part of its nuclear weapons expansion strategy to counter China’s growing nuclear forces.

Shinku La Tunnel

The Shinku La Tunnel is a strategic infrastructure project located in Himachal Pradesh, designed to improve connectivity in the rugged Himalayan region. It is a high-altitude tunnel that aims to provide all-weather road access, reducing travel time and enhancing military logistics in border areas. The tunnel is named after the Shinku La pass and is part of broader efforts to strengthen border infrastructure along the India-China frontier. It is lesser-known due to its remote location but is vital for national security and local development. The tunnel will facilitate faster troop movement and supply chain efficiency in harsh weather conditions.

Why in news?

The Shinku La Tunnel project is receiving funding from the increased budget allocation to the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) for border infrastructure development.

SM-6 Missile

The SM-6 (Standard Missile-6) is a versatile, long-range missile developed by Raytheon for the U.S. Navy, capable of anti-air, anti-surface, and ballistic missile defense roles. It combines features from the SM-2 and the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile, using active radar homing for guidance. The SM-6 can engage targets beyond the horizon, making it effective against cruise missiles, aircraft, and ballistic missiles. It is launched from Aegis-equipped ships and has a range of approximately 240 kilometers. The missile has been operational since 2013 and is continuously upgraded to improve performance and adapt to emerging threats.

Why in news?

The SM-6 missile is part of the U.S. long-range missile deployment plan in Germany starting in 2026, aiming to enhance NATO’s defense capabilities against Russia.