Polity & Governance

2015 Amendments to Indian Arbitration Law

The 2015 amendments to the Indian Arbitration and Conciliation Act were landmark reforms designed to streamline arbitration proceedings and reduce judicial interference. Key changes included strict timelines for arbitral awards, limited grounds for court intervention, and provisions to promote India as an international arbitration hub. These amendments improved India’s Ease of Doing Business ranking and attracted foreign investment. However, subsequent amendments in 2018, 2019, and 2021 introduced complexities and weakened some reforms. The 2015 amendments remain the most overhaul of arbitration law in India’s history, aimed at expediting dispute resolution and enhancing arbitration quality.

Why in news?

The 2024 government memorandum reversing reliance on arbitration contrasts with the 2015 amendments’ objectives, signaling a policy shift away from arbitration in public sector contracts.

2023 Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023 Act)

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, is India’s latest legislation regulating the processing of personal data. It replaces earlier drafts by simplifying data protection rights, including a right to erasure allowing individuals to restrict or cease disclosure of their personal data by data fiduciaries. The Act’s scope excludes data made publicly available by persons legally obligated to disclose it, such as court records. The legislation does not explicitly recognize the right to be forgotten, leading to legal uncertainty about its application to judicial data. The Act emphasizes balancing privacy rights with public interest and freedom of information.

Why in news?

The 2023 Act is central to debates on whether court records qualify as personal data subject to erasure, influencing the Supreme Court’s deliberations on privacy and public access to judicial orders.

54th GST Council Meeting

The 54th GST Council Meeting is scheduled for September 9, 2024, and is a forum where state and central government finance ministers discuss Goods and Services Tax-related issues. The council was formed under the Article 279A of the Constitution of India and meets regularly to make decisions on tax rates, exemptions, and procedural changes. It operates under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. The council’s decisions require a three-fourths majority, including at least half of the states representing at least 50% of the population. The 54th meeting will revisit the issue of GST on digital news subscriptions.

Why in news?

The 54th GST Council meeting will reconsider the proposal to reduce or exempt GST on digital news subscriptions, a topic previously discussed but not approved in the 50th meeting.

Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB)

The Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) is an Government of Indiaal agency established under the Aircraft Act of 1934. It is responsible for investigating aircraft accidents and incidents to improve aviation safety. The AAIB operates independently from regulatory and operational bodies to ensure unbiased investigations. It analyzes causes, issues safety recommendations, and works closely with international aviation organizations. The bureau’s findings help prevent future accidents and enhance operational protocols. Its budget is part of the government’s yearly allocation under the existing Aircraft Act, with no separate funding proposed in the new bill.

Why in news?

AAIB’s role is retained under the new Bharatiya Vayuyan Vidheyak 2024, which continues to empower it without creating new financial burdens on the government.

Aldermen

Aldermen are nominated members of municipal corporations, distinct from elected councillors. In Delhi’s Municipal Corporation Act, 1957, the Lieutenant Governor (L-G) can nominate 10 aldermen with expertise in municipal administration. Aldermen do not vote in full MCD meetings but participate actively in Wards Committees, which are essential for local governance. They can vote and stand for election in the MCD Standing Committee, which manages critical municipal functions like contracts over Rs. 5 crore and budget approvals. Their role is very important in ensuring the MCD’s operational continuity, especially when elected members alone cannot form the Standing Committee.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruled that the Delhi L-G has the power to nominate aldermen without consulting the Delhi Government, validating the January 2023 nominations and resolving a legal dispute affecting MCD functions.

Amrit Kaal

Amrit Kaal refers to the period leading up to the centenary of India’s independence in 2047. It is a term used to signify a transformative phase aimed at national progress and development. The government and various institutions are aligning long-term plans and initiatives to realize the vision of a developed and self-reliant India by this milestone. The term embodies aspirations for economic growth, technological advancement, and enhanced global stature. It is increasingly referenced in policy documents and strategic military planning to emphasize sustained efforts over the next two decades.

Why in news?

The Indian Army’s strategic meeting focused on transformation plans aligned with the Amrit Kaal vision to prepare the force for future challenges and contribute to India’s development goals by 2047.

Arbitration Bar of India

The Arbitration Bar of India is a specialized group of legal professionals focusing on arbitration practice within India. It comprises advocates, arbitrators, and legal experts who promote arbitration as a dispute resolution mechanism. The Bar actively engages with the government and judiciary to influence arbitration laws and policies. It provides training, accreditation, and advocacy for arbitration practitioners. The organization played a key role in the 2015 amendments aimed at making India an international arbitration hub. Despite its influence, it faces challenges due to recent government policies discouraging arbitration in public procurement contracts, impacting its members and the arbitration market.

Why in news?

The Arbitration Bar of India opposed the 2024 government memorandum shifting away from arbitration in domestic public procurement contracts, fearing negative impacts on the arbitration ecosystem and legal market in India.

Article 137 of the Constitution of India

Article 137 grants the Supreme Court of India the power to review its own judgments or orders. Review petitions must be filed within 30 days of the judgment. Reviews are rare and allowed only to correct “grave errors” or “mistakes apparent on the face of the record” that may cause miscarriage of justice. The judges who delivered the original verdict decide on the review petitions, usually by circulation in chambers without oral arguments. This mechanism ensures the finality of Supreme Court decisions while providing a narrow window for correction of judicial errors.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court invoked Article 137 to defer review of its PMLA verdict, allowing reconsideration of contentious bail and investigative provisions upheld earlier.

Article 16(4A)

Article 16(4A) of the Constitution of India was inserted by the Constitution (Seventy-seventh) Amendment Act, 1995. It allows the state to provide reservation in promotions for SCs and STs in public employment, including the retention of seniority gained through such promotions, termed “consequential seniority.” This amendment overturned previous Supreme Court rulings that restricted reservations in promotions to maintain administrative efficiency, reflecting a shift towards substantive equality. The article ensures that once promoted, reserved-category employees do not lose seniority compared to their general-category peers.

Why in news?

Article 16(4A) was central to the Supreme Court’s August 2024 judgment affirming expanded interpretation of reservation and seniority rights for SC/ST candidates.

Article 239AA of the Constitution of India

Article 239AA provides special provisions for the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. It establishes the Delhi Legislative Assembly, Council of Ministers, Chief Minister, and Lieutenant Governor (L-G). The Article states that the Council of Ministers aids and advises the L-G except where the L-G must act at his discretion. The Assembly can legislate on State List subjects except ‘Public Order’, ‘Police’, and ‘Land’. This article creates a unique power-sharing arrangement between the Delhi Government and the Centre-appointed L-G, often leading to jurisdictional disputes over governance matters in Delhi.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court’s ruling on the Delhi L-G’s power to nominate aldermen hinged on interpreting Article 239AA’s provisions regarding the L-G’s discretionary powers versus the Council of Ministers’ role.

Article 254 of the Constitution of India

Article 254 deals with conflicts between central and state laws on subjects in the Concurrent List. Clause (1) states that if a state law contradicts a central law, the central law overrides the state law. Clause (2) provides an exception – if the state law receives the President’s assent, it prevails in that state despite repugnancy. This mechanism ensures that states can enact laws suited to local conditions but requires central approval when laws conflict. It safeguards the constitutional balance between state autonomy and national coherence.

Why in news?

Himachal Pradesh’s Bill raising the marriage age for women conflicts with the central PCM Act. Its enforcement requires the Governor to reserve it for the President’s assent under Article 254.

Article 341 of the Constitution of India

Article 341 empowers the President of India to specify the Scheduled Castes (SC) by notification. Once notified, this list can only be modified by an Act of Parliament, not by executive orders or state legislatures. It is a constitutional safeguard to maintain uniformity and prevent arbitrary changes to the SC list. The article ensures that the identification of SCs is centralized, reflecting their historical experience of untouchability and social discrimination. The Supreme Court has held that while States cannot alter this list, they may create sub-categories within SCs for reservation purposes without modifying the presidential notification itself.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruled that States can sub-divide Scheduled Castes into groups for sub-quotas without violating Article 341, overturning a 2004 judgment that restricted such classification only to Parliament.

Article 342A of the Constitution of India

Article 342A, inserted by the 103rd Constitutional Amendment in 2018, empowers States and Union Territories to identify and maintain lists of Socially and Economically Backward Classes (SEBCs) distinct from the Presidential list of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This article allows states to recognize backward classes for reservation independently. It also provides a constitutional basis for states to create sub-categories within these groups. Article 342A was cited in recent Supreme Court arguments to justify state power in sub-classifying Scheduled Castes, marking a shift from earlier interpretations that only the President could notify SC lists under Article 341.

Why in news?

Article 342A was referenced in Supreme Court hearings supporting states’ authority to sub-categorise Scheduled Castes for reservation, impacting the interpretation of reservation laws and policies.

Balakrishnan Committee (1989)

The Balakrishnan Committee was established to recommend a framework for governance in Delhi. It proposed the creation of a Legislative Assembly and council of ministers for the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. Its recommendations led to the 69th Constitutional Amendment in 1991, which granted Delhi partial statehood with an elected government. The committee also suggested excluding key subjects like public order, police, and land from the Delhi government’s jurisdiction, keeping them under Union government control. This division of powers aimed to balance local autonomy with central oversight in the capital region.

Why in news?

The committee’s recommendations underpin the current governance structure of Delhi, relevant to recent Supreme Court rulings on the powers of the Lieutenant Governor and the Delhi government.

Border Roads Organization (BRO)

The Border Roads Organization (BRO) is an Government of India agency responsible for developing and maintaining road networks in border areas and difficult terrains. Established in 1960, BRO plays a strategic role in ensuring connectivity in remote mountainous regions, including Sikkim. It constructs roads, bridges, and tunnels, often under challenging weather and geological conditions. BRO’s work supports military logistics, civilian transportation, and disaster relief operations. Its rapid response capabilities enable quick restoration of damaged infrastructure, crucial for regions prone to landslides and earthquakes.

Why in news?

BRO was instructed to begin immediate restoration of the Singtam-Dikchu road after a landslide damaged the route near the NHPC Stage 5 dam site in Sikkim.

Caste Census

A caste census collects detailed data on the social stratification of a population by caste groups. India’s last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931. Subsequent censuses have only included Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes categories. Recent political and social debates have pushed for including Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in the census to better understand social dynamics and allocate resources. The caste census data can influence affirmative action policies and political representation. It remains a sensitive and contested issue due to concerns about social division and political manipulation.

Why in news?

Media reports suggest the 2024 Indian census may include expanded caste categories, including OBCs, amid growing demands for a comprehensive caste census.

Catch-up Rule

The Catch-up Rule was a judicial principle applied in India concerning reservation in promotions for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). When a reserved-category candidate was promoted earlier than a general-category candidate, the latter was allowed to regain seniority later, effectively “catching up.” This rule maintained a balance between affirmative action and administrative efficiency. The rule was challenged and eventually modified by the Constitution (Seventy-seventh) Amendment Act, 1995, which introduced Article 16(4A), allowing reserved-category candidates to retain their seniority gained through early promotion, known as “consequential seniority.”

Why in news?

The catch-up rule was discussed in the Supreme Court’s August 2024 verdict on sub-classification of SC/ST quotas, impacting reservation in promotions and seniority rights.

Concurrent List (List III) of the Constitution of India

The Concurrent List, or List III under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India, contains subjects on which both the central and state governments can legislate. It includes areas such as marriage and divorce, contracts, and minors. If a state law conflicts with a central law on a Concurrent List subject, the central law prevails unless the state law has received presidential assent. This arrangement balances federalism and allows states to tailor laws to regional needs while maintaining national uniformity on key issues.

Why in news?

The Himachal Pradesh Bill amending the PCM Act falls under the Concurrent List. Its implementation depends on presidential assent due to its inconsistency with the central law.

Delimitation of Constituencies

Delimitation is the process of redrawing boundaries of electoral constituencies based on population data to ensure equal representation. In India, the Delimitation Commission, an independent body, is responsible for this task. It uses census data to adjust the size and shape of parliamentary and assembly constituencies. The last major delimitation exercise was completed in 2008 based on the 2001 census. Delimitation affects political power distribution and resource allocation. It also influences reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The process must balance population equality with geographical and administrative considerations.

Why in news?

The 2024 census data will be crucial for delimitation exercises affecting parliamentary and local electoral constituencies, impacting political representation and resource distribution.

Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB)

The Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) is the highest statutory body under India’s Ministry of Health and Family Welfare for advising on technical matters related to drugs and pharmaceuticals. Established under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, DTAB reviews drug safety, efficacy, and regulatory policies. It comprises experts from medical, pharmaceutical, and regulatory fields. DTAB’s recommendations influence drug approvals, bans, and amendments to drug laws. It also evaluates Fixed Dose Combination medicines for therapeutic justification. The board’s decisions aim to ensure drug safety and efficacy, balancing innovation with public health protection in India’s vast pharmaceutical market.

Why in news?

DTAB recommended banning 156 FDC medicines after expert evaluation deemed them unsafe and therapeutically unjustified, prompting government action to prohibit their manufacture and sale.

Entry 49 of the State List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India

Entry 49 in the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India grants States the power to impose taxes on lands and buildings. This entry is a key source of fiscal autonomy for States, allowing them to raise revenues independently from the Centre. It includes taxation rights on immovable properties, including mineral-bearing lands and quarries. The Supreme Court recently relied on this entry to uphold the power of State Legislatures to tax mineral rights, reinforcing federal principles. This entry has been a subject of debate regarding the extent of State versus Central powers in fiscal matters.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court invoked Entry 49 to affirm States’ authority to tax mines and minerals, rejecting limitations imposed by Parliament and emphasizing fiscal federalism.

Entry 50 of List II (State List) in the Constitution of India

Entry 50 of List II in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India grants states the power to impose taxes on mineral rights. This entry allows states to levy taxes on the rights to mine minerals within their territories, distinct from the central government’s regulatory powers under the Union List. It is a critical constitutional provision balancing fiscal federalism by empowering states to generate revenue from natural resources. The scope of Entry 50 has been subject to judicial interpretation, especially regarding its interaction with the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, and central taxing authority. It underpins states’ autonomy over mineral taxation.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court judgment reaffirmed states’ authority under Entry 50 to tax mineral rights, clarifying constitutional powers between Union and states.

Fitment Committee under the GST Council

The Fitment Committee is a specialized panel within the GST Council tasked with reviewing and recommending the classification of goods and services under the GST regime. It focuses on resolving ambiguities by examining products with similar compositions placed in different tax categories. The committee analyzes the harmonized system of nomenclature (HSN) codes to suggest appropriate tax slabs and reduce litigation. It plays a critical role in the ongoing efforts to rationalize GST rates by ensuring consistent classification before any rate adjustments. The committee’s recommendations influence the structure and simplification of India’s indirect tax system.

Why in news?

The Fitment Committee is preparing a comprehensive report on product classification ambiguities ahead of the GST rate rationalization exercise expected in late August 2024.

Godavari River Management Board

The Godavari River Management Board (GRMB) is a statutory authority established to regulate and manage water usage from the Godavari River across states. It ensures equitable water distribution and resolves inter-state disputes. The board approves major irrigation projects and allocates water quotas, such as the 67 tmcft allocation for the Sita Rama project. It plays a critical role in coordinating projects involving multiple states and overseeing compliance with Supreme Court directives. The GRMB was constituted following agreements under the Interstate River Water Disputes Act to promote sustainable and fair utilization of the Godavari basin resources.

Why in news?

The GRMB recently approved the full water allocation of 67 tmcft to the Sita Rama Lift Irrigation Project, enabling the project’s near completion phase.

Government Grant Act, 1895

The Government Grant Act, 1895, was a British colonial law regulating the grant and use of government land in India. It authorized the issuance of land grants with specific conditions and restrictions, often for administrative or settlement purposes. Grants under this act created a category of land that remained government-owned but could be leased or licensed to individuals or entities. These lands are now classified as nazul property. The act’s provisions continue to influence land tenure and ownership disputes in post-independence India, especially in areas with colonial-era land records. It laid the foundation for leasehold systems still in place .

Why in news?

The recent nazul land bill references the Government Grant Act, 1895, to define properties under state ownership, affecting leaseholds and freehold rights across Uttar Pradesh.

Greenfield Cities Incubation

Greenfield cities incubation refers to the development of new urban areas from scratch, planned with modern infrastructure and sustainable growth principles. The Government of India, based on the 15th Finance Commission report, approved incubation of eight greenfield cities with an investment of Rs 1,000 crore each. These cities are intended to ease urban congestion and promote economic development. The incubation process includes planning, resource allocation, and infrastructure setup before full-scale construction and habitation. Greenfield cities contrast with brownfield cities, which involve redevelopment of existing urban areas.

Why in news?

The government has included the incubation of eight greenfield cities in its 100-day agenda for urban development.

Indian Customs EDI System (ICES)

The Indian Customs EDI System (ICES) is an electronic platform facilitating customs clearance through electronic data interchange. Operational at 252 major customs locations, it handles nearly 98% of India’s international trade. ICES enables exporters to avail benefits like RoDTEP by processing documentation and clearances electronically, improving efficiency and transparency. Non-EDI ports do not support RoDTEP, limiting small exporters who often use these ports. ICES also supports e-commerce exports if physical shipment occurs from an EDI port.

Why in news?

ICES is central to the implementation of the RoDTEP scheme, which the government plans to extend to support exporters.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)

The Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) is a government initiative under the Ministry of Home Affairs aimed at combating cybercrime through coordinated efforts across various agencies. It serves as a national nodal agency for cybercrime investigation, intelligence sharing, training, and capacity building. I4C facilitates collaboration between law enforcement, regulatory bodies, and private sector entities to address cyber threats. It organizes workshops and meetings with stakeholders in sectors like fintech to raise awareness and develop strategies against cyber fraud. I4C also supports the implementation of technological solutions to detect and prevent cybercrimes.

Why in news?

I4C recently engaged with top executives of NBFC-AAs to discuss rising cyber fraud targeting the fintech sector and to strategize on improving security and fraud prevention measures.

Integrated Transport Hubs

Integrated Transport Hubs are centralized facilities designed to combine various modes of transportation—roadways, railways, airways, waterways, and ropeways—into a single location for seamless passenger and freight transfer. These hubs aim to reduce transit times, minimize urban congestion, and enhance connectivity. They provide infrastructure such as terminals, parking, ticketing, and waiting areas, facilitating easy mode changes. Globally, integrated hubs have been shown to increase public transport usage and economic activity. India’s plan includes pilot hubs in Katra, Tirupati, Varanasi, and Nagpur, focusing on improving passenger experience and freight efficiency.

Why in news?

The Government of India plans to develop integrated transport hubs to streamline and centralize transportation systems, improving convenience and reducing congestion in major cities.

Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) governs the mining sector in India. It regulates the prospecting, mining, and development of minerals, excluding minor minerals and atomic minerals. Amendments in 2015 introduced auction-based allocation of mineral leases to enhance transparency and curb illegal mining. The Act empowers State Governments to grant mining leases, collect royalties, and regulate mining activities. It also prescribes penalties for violations. The 2015 amendments replaced discretionary allotments with competitive bidding, aiming to increase revenue and promote sustainable mining practices. The Act excludes coal, petroleum, and natural gas, which are governed separately.

Why in news?

The Act’s 2015 amendments are central to the Supreme Court’s recent judgment on States’ power to tax mines and minerals rights, impacting retrospective tax demands and auction-based lease terms.

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC) is a quasi-judicial commission in India established under the Consumer Protection Act, 1986. It functions as the apex consumer dispute redressal forum with jurisdiction over the entire country. The NCDRC hears appeals against orders of State Commissions and has the power to entertain complaints where the value of goods or services exceeds ₹1 crore. It also handles complaints involving unfair trade practices and deficiency of services. The commission comprises a President and members appointed by the central government. It plays a vital role in protecting consumer rights at a national level.

Why in news?

The NCDRC recently ordered Goibibo to refund a family for canceled Jet Airways tickets, affirming liability of online travel agencies in refund disputes.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) is a high-level body headed by the Cabinet Secretary that coordinates responses to national emergencies, including natural and man-made disasters. It functions as the nodal agency for crises with serious or national ramifications, ensuring inter-ministerial coordination and unified decision-making. The 2005 Act did not give the NCMC legal status, but the proposed amendments seek to formalize it in law. This legal recognition aims to enhance the committee’s authority and streamline disaster management at the national level, facilitating faster and more effective crisis response.

Why in news?

The amendment Bill grants legal status to the NCMC, making it the official nodal body for handling disasters with national impact.

Parliamentary Privilege

Parliamentary privilege refers to the special rights and immunities granted to members of parliament to enable them to perform their duties without external interference. In India, these privileges are not comprehensively defined by law but are derived from Article 105 of the Constitution, the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, and parliamentary conventions. Key privileges include freedom of speech within Parliament, protection from arrest during sessions and committee meetings, and immunity from court proceedings for statements made in the house. These privileges also cover freedom to publish house proceedings and extend to forty days before and after sessions.

Why in news?

A privilege motion was moved against Prime Minister Narendra Modi for sharing a video containing remarks later expunged from the Lok Sabha proceedings, raising questions about misuse of parliamentary privilege.

Readjustment of Representation of Scheduled Tribes in Assembly Constituencies of the State of Goa Bill, 2024

This Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha to enable reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Goa Legislative Assembly, where none existed before. It empowers the census commissioner to ascertain or estimate the ST population in Goa, allowing the Election Commission to readjust assembly constituencies accordingly. The Bill addresses the discrepancy caused by the 2011 census showing a large increase in ST population due to the inclusion of Kunbi, Gawda, and Velip communities in 2003. The Bill aims to amend the Delimitation Order, 2008, to facilitate ST reservation in Goa’s 40-member assembly.

Why in news?

The Bill was introduced in August 2024 to provide constitutional reservation to STs in Goa’s legislative assembly following a rise in the ST population and the absence of reserved seats.

Reverse Burden of Proof in PMLA Bail Provisions

Under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), the accused bear a reverse burden of proof when applying for bail. Unlike in ordinary criminal law where the prosecution must prove guilt, PMLA requires the accused to prove their innocence to secure bail. This provision is intended to prevent accused persons involved in economic offences from evading justice easily. The Supreme Court upheld this provision in the Vijay Madanlal Choudhary case, citing the compelling interest in stringent bail conditions. Critics argue this reverses the presumption of innocence, a fundamental legal principle.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court is reviewing its 2022 ruling that upheld reverse burden of proof in PMLA bail provisions, following a petition challenging this aspect.

Review Committees under Cabinet Secretary and Chief Secretary

The interception rules require the establishment of two review committees – one at the central level under the Cabinet Secretary and one at the state level under the Chief Secretary. These committees must convene every two months to review ongoing interception orders. They have the authority to set aside interception orders or mandate destruction of intercepted messages if rules were violated or interception was unauthorized. This mechanism provides periodic oversight and ensures interception practices comply with legal safeguards and privacy protections.

Why in news?

The updated rules retained the provision for these review committees to enhance transparency and accountability in lawful interception practices.

Right to be Forgotten

The right to be forgotten allows individuals to request the removal of personal data from digital platforms when it is no longer relevant or necessary. Originating from a 2014 Court of Justice of the European Union ruling, it was codified in the EU’s 2016 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) under Article 17 as the right to erasure. India’s 2023 Digital Personal Data Protection Act includes a simplified right to erasure but does not explicitly recognize the right to be forgotten, especially regarding publicly available data. Indian courts are divided on whether this right applies to judicial records, which are typically public documents.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court is examining if the right to be forgotten extends to court judgments, following a Madras High Court order to remove an acquittal judgment from Indian Kanoon.

Rule 222 of the Lok Sabha

Rule 222 is a procedural guideline in the Lok Sabha that governs the raising of privilege motions. It requires a member to obtain the Speaker’s consent before raising a question involving a breach of privilege of a member, the House, or a Committee. The rule ensures that privilege notices are filtered for feasibility before formal examination. If consent is granted, the matter is referred to the privileges committee for detailed inquiry. This rule maintains order and prevents frivolous or politically motivated privilege motions from disrupting parliamentary proceedings. It is a key part of the parliamentary privilege framework in India.

Why in news?

Rule 222 is cited as the procedural basis for the Speaker’s consent before processing Charanjit Singh Channi’s breach of privilege notice against PM Modi in the Lok Sabha.

Sagar Pesha

Sagar Pesha is a slum area in Prayagraj historically inhabited by descendants of workers such as coolies, gardeners, and cooks employed by the British colonial administration. These residents lived in outhouses or small quarters on nazul land originally acquired by the British from freedom fighters. The area has seen illegal subdivisions and unauthorized constructions. Many families have lived there for generations, with some leaseholds spanning over 100 years. Sagar Pesha residents have sought freehold rights to secure tenure but face eviction threats following changes in nazul land policy. The community represents a colonial-era settlement pattern linked to British administrative needs.

Why in news?

The bill on nazul land threatens evictions of thousands of families in Sagar Pesha, provoking political opposition and denoting historic land tenure issues in Prayagraj.

Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2005)

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) was constituted in 2005 under the chairmanship of former Union Law Minister M. Veerappa Moily. It aimed to improve governance and administrative efficiency in India. The Commission recommended lateral entry of domain experts into civil services to fill specialized roles not easily available within traditional bureaucracy. It emphasized a transparent recruitment process for such lateral induction without bypassing standard government recruitment. The Commission’s recommendations influenced policies implemented later, including the lateral entry scheme introduced by the Modi government in 2018. The ARC submitted multiple reports on governance reforms before concluding its mandate in 2009.

Why in news?

The ARC’s recommendation on lateral entry forms the conceptual basis for the current UPSC lateral entry recruitment advertisement for 45 posts in Central Ministries.

Special Summary Revision of Electoral Rolls

The Special Summary Revision (SSR) is a periodic update of electoral rolls conducted by the Election Commission of India to include new voters, delete names of deceased or shifted voters, and correct errors. It ensures the electoral roll is accurate and up-to-date before elections. The SSR involves door-to-door verification and public display of draft rolls for objections. In Jammu & Kashmir, the SSR for 2024 saw an increase of over 93,000 new voters, including 4.27 lakh new voters aged 18-19. This process is crucial for transparent and fair elections, especially in sensitive regions.

Why in news?

The SSR completion in J&K ahead of the 2024 assembly elections resulted in rise in the electorate, reflecting increased voter registration and participation, particularly among youth.

Tungabhadra Board

The Tungabhadra Board was established by a presidential order in 1953 to manage the Tungabhadra dam and its reservoir. It consists of a chairman appointed by the Union government and four members representing the Union government and the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. The Board oversees operations, maintenance, and dispute resolution related to the dam. It manages water releases, dam repairs, and reservoir capacity issues. The Board was formed after the dam’s construction was completed in 1953, following joint efforts by the erstwhile governments of Hyderabad and Madras.

Why in news?

The Tungabhadra Board issued statements and is coordinating repairs after a crest gate failure at the dam, causing flood alerts downstream in Karnataka’s Koppal district.

Twin conditions of bail

The “twin conditions of bail” require that an accused can only be granted bail if the public prosecutor is given a chance to oppose it, and the court must be convinced there are reasonable grounds to believe the accused is not guilty and unlikely to commit further offenses. These conditions are applied in stringent laws like the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, Prevention of Money Laundering Act, and Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act. The Uttar Pradesh amendment has introduced these bail conditions for unlawful conversion offenses, making bail difficult to obtain and placing a reverse burden of proof on the accused.

Why in news?

The Uttar Pradesh anti-conversion law amendment in 2024 incorporates these bail conditions, increasing the difficulty for accused individuals to secure bail.

Urban Disaster Management Authority (UDMA)

The Urban Disaster Management Authority (UDMA) is a proposed body under the amended Disaster Management Act, 2005, specifically designed for large metropolitan cities in India. It is headed by the municipal commissioner and aims to address the unique disaster management challenges of urban areas comprising multiple districts. The UDMA will coordinate disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation efforts in cities with municipal corporations, including all state capitals. This authority is a new institutional mechanism introduced to complement existing state and national disaster management frameworks, recognizing the growing vulnerabilities in urban settings due to population density and infrastructure complexity.

Why in news?

The 2024 Bill to amend the Disaster Management Act proposes the creation of Urban Disaster Management Authorities for metropolitan cities to improve disaster response and management efficiency.

Vahan Database

The Vahan database is an Government of India-managed repository of vehicle registration and related information maintained by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. It contains data on vehicle ownership, registration details, fitness certificates, and permits. The database is used for enforcement, taxation, and regulatory compliance. It is linked with other government systems to verify vehicle-related information in various audits and investigations. Vahan data can reveal commercial activity levels, such as transport services, which can be cross-checked against declared business turnover for tax compliance.

Why in news?

The CAG report recommends using the Vahan database as a third-party source to verify the declared sales and activities of GST composition scheme taxpayers to detect potential tax evasion.

Virtual Roll Call Voting

Virtual roll call voting is a digital process used by political parties to officially tally delegate votes during conventions. It allows delegates to cast their votes remotely via secure electronic ballots, ensuring participation regardless of location. This method was first widely adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic to maintain safety and accessibility. The votes are typically counted over several days, with strict deadlines for submission. Security protocols include encryption and authentication to prevent fraud. Virtual roll call voting maintains the traditional roll call format but adapts it for modern technology, increasing inclusivity and efficiency in the nomination process.

Why in news?

The Democratic Party is using virtual roll call voting from August 1 to August 5, 2024, to officially nominate Kamala Harris as their presidential candidate.

Water Aerodromes

Water aerodromes are designated areas on water bodies such as lakes, rivers, or coastal zones used for the landing and takeoff of seaplanes and amphibious aircraft. They function like airports but lack traditional runways, relying on water surfaces. Water aerodromes require specific infrastructure such as floating docks, passenger terminals, and safety equipment. They are crucial for connecting islands, coastal regions, and remote areas. India currently has two operational water aerodromes under the UDAN scheme. These aerodromes support tourism, research, and strategic operations like coastal defense and environmental monitoring.

Why in news?

The Civil Aviation Ministry announced simplified norms for seaplane operations, involving water aerodromes, to promote regional connectivity and tourism.

Economy & Banking/Finance

Alcohol-Related Economic Burden in India

The economic cost of alcohol-related diseases and injuries in India is projected to exceed Rs 3 lakh crore between 2011 and 2050. When productivity losses are included, the total cost rises to Rs 121.3 lakh crore. This far outweighs the revenue generated from alcohol excise taxes, which cover only about one-fifth of these losses. The burden includes healthcare expenses for treating cancers, liver diseases, mental illnesses, and injuries linked to alcohol use. These figures show the substantial financial strain on the healthcare system and the economy caused by alcohol misuse, emphasizing the need for effective policy interventions.

Why in news?

The article discusses the financial and health burden of alcohol consumption in India amid debates on allowing doorstep delivery of alcohol.

B-heavy and C-heavy Molasses

B-heavy and C-heavy molasses are by-products of sugarcane processing used in ethanol production. B-heavy molasses is the residual syrup after sugar crystallization from cane juice, containing higher sugar content than C-heavy molasses. C-heavy molasses is the final residue after multiple sugar extractions, with minimal fermentable sugars. B-heavy molasses is preferred for ethanol due to its higher sugar concentration, yielding more ethanol per unit volume. Both types are cheaper than sugarcane juice but require specific fermentation techniques due to impurities. Their use helps optimize sugarcane utilization and supports ethanol blending targets in biofuel programs.

Why in news?

The Union government lifted the cap on ethanol production from sugarcane juice, sugar syrup, and B-heavy and C-heavy molasses to boost ethanol supply for the 2024-25 ethanol supply year.

Banking Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024

The Banking Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024, proposes increasing the number of nominees per bank account from one to four. It seeks to redefine ‘substantial interest’ for directorships, raising the threshold from Rs 5 lakh to Rs 2 crore. The Bill also allows banks greater freedom in deciding statutory auditor remuneration and changes regulatory reporting dates to the 15th and last day of each month. It amends multiple acts, including the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, and the Banking Regulation Act, 1949. The Bill was approved by the Union Cabinet and introduced in Lok Sabha in August 2024.

Why in news?

The Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha to modernize banking regulations, enhance governance, and update outdated financial thresholds, sparking political debate over cooperative societies’ jurisdiction.

Base Effect in Inflation Measurement

The base effect refers to how current inflation rates are influenced by the inflation rate in the same period of the previous year. If prices were unusually high or low in the base period, the inflation rate calculated this year can be misleadingly low or high. This effect can cause temporary dips or spikes in inflation figures without reflecting actual price trends. It is frequently used to explain short-term fluctuations in inflation data, especially during volatile periods like pandemic recoveries or supply shocks.

Why in news?

The recent dip in India’s CPI inflation to 3.54% was largely attributed to a higher base effect from the previous year, suggesting the low inflation may not be sustained.

BioCatch

BioCatch is a digital fraud detection company specializing in behavioral biometrics to identify fraudulent activity. It analyzes user behavior during online sessions to detect anomalies indicating fraud, such as mule account usage. BioCatch reported that 86% of mule account activity initially originates in India, with low VPN use, suggesting involvement of Indian nationals. Their findings show that most mule account activity is concentrated in specific cities like Bhubaneswar and Lucknow. BioCatch’s technology is used by banks and financial institutions to enhance fraud detection and reduce money laundering risks.

Why in news?

BioCatch revealed data showing the scale and geographic distribution of mule account activity in India, underscoring the need for improved fraud detection measures by banks and regulators.

BioE3 Policy

The BioE3 policy stands for Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment, a strategic initiative by India to boost biomanufacturing by 2047. It focuses on integrating biotechnology with traditional industries to create sustainable economic growth and environmental benefits. The policy promotes establishing bio-AI hubs, biofoundries, and biomanufacturing facilities to accelerate innovation. It targets sectors like food, climate, energy, chemicals, and health, aiming to replace unsustainable manufacturing with regenerative methods. It also supports an integrated platform for producing nutritious food with minimal resources, aiding disaster relief and space missions. Over 8,000 startups will participate, enhancing employment and GDP growth.

Why in news?

The Indian Union Cabinet approved the BioE3 policy in August 2024 to advance biotechnology-driven industrial growth and sustainability by 2047, involving multiple ministries and thousands of startups.

BRICS Bridge

The BRICS Bridge is a blockchain-based payment system under development by BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, China, South Africa) to connect their financial systems. It aims to facilitate cross-border settlements using central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), reducing reliance on the US dollar. This system intends to enable faster, more transparent transactions between member countries while supporting de-dollarisation efforts. The BRICS Bridge could integrate multiple CBDCs into a single platform, enhancing trade efficiency and financial cooperation. It represents a strategic move to create an alternative global payment infrastructure outside traditional Western-dominated systems like SWIFT.

Why in news?

The BRICS Bridge is brought into light as part of BRICS efforts to reduce US dollar dominance and promote trade settlements in local currencies and CBDCs, challenging existing global financial structures.

Calibrated Central Bank Intervention

Calibrated central bank intervention refers to measured and strategic actions by a central bank in foreign exchange markets to influence the value of its currency without causing excessive volatility. This may involve buying or selling domestic or foreign currencies, adjusting interest rates, or using communication strategies to guide market expectations. The goal is to correct misalignments, stabilize the currency, and support economic objectives like export competitiveness or inflation control. Such interventions are typically discreet and incremental to avoid market disruption and maintain credibility. Central banks coordinate these actions with broader monetary policy frameworks.

Why in news?

The Reserve Bank of India is believed to have used calibrated interventions to reduce the rupee’s overvaluation and improve the export sector’s competitiveness amid recent currency fluctuations.

CASA (Current and Savings Account) Ratio

CASA ratio represents the proportion of a bank’s deposits held in current and savings accounts compared to total deposits. These accounts provide banks with low-cost funds since they typically pay little or no interest. A higher CASA ratio improves a bank’s net interest margin, as it reduces reliance on costly fixed deposits. CASA deposits are considered stable and liquid, supporting banks’ lending capacity. Shifts away from CASA towards higher-cost deposits make banks more vulnerable to interest rate fluctuations and increase funding costs. Both public and private sector banks in India monitor CASA ratios closely to manage profitability and liquidity.

Why in news?

The decline in CASA deposits amid rising credit growth is pressuring banks to seek costlier funding, impacting margins and financial stability, as discussed by RBI officials.

Cash Recycler Machines

Cash recycler machines are advanced ATMs capable of accepting cash deposits and dispensing cash withdrawals from the same pool of cash. These machines recycle deposited cash for future withdrawals, reducing the need for frequent cash replenishment. They are equipped with sensors to verify and count notes, improving transaction speed and accuracy. Cash recyclers support multiple denominations and enhance ATM uptime. In India, these machines are increasingly integrated with digital banking features and interoperable UPI services, aligning with efforts to digitize cash handling and improve customer convenience.

Why in news?

NPCI brought into light the role of cash recycler machines in enabling UPI interoperable cash deposits and transforming ATM infrastructure at the Global Fintech Fest 2024.

CBDT (Central Board of Direct Taxes)

CBDT is the apex authority for direct tax administration in India, functioning under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance. It formulates policies, issues guidelines, and oversees tax collection and enforcement. CBDT clarifies ambiguities regarding tax laws, including TDS provisions like section 194R. It also issues instructions on valuation, exemptions, and compliance to ensure uniform application of tax laws. CBDT’s guidelines are binding on tax authorities and taxpayers and play a critical role in implementing tax reforms and digital tax administration in India.

Why in news?

CBDT issued clarifications and guidelines on the implementation of section 194R, explaining valuation, exemptions, and responsibilities regarding tax deduction on benefits and perquisites.

Chelliah Committee

The Chelliah Committee, chaired by Raja J Chelliah in the 1990s, was very important in reforming India’s central taxation system. It recommended introducing inflation indexation for long-term capital gains to offset inflation effects, which was crucial when inflation exceeded 7% for prolonged periods. The committee’s proposals aimed to tax only real gains, reducing the tax burden caused by nominal gains. This indexation benefit was adopted to make capital gains taxation fairer by adjusting the purchase price of assets for inflation before computing gains, a practice now largely removed in India’s 2024-25 budget reforms.

Why in news?

The Chelliah Committee’s recommendation on inflation indexation is central to debates on the recent removal of indexation benefits in India’s 2024-25 Union Budget.

Collective Investment Scheme (CIS)

A Collective Investment Scheme (CIS) pools funds from multiple investors to invest in various assets. In India, CIS is regulated by Sebi to protect investors from fraudulent schemes. Non-compliance with CIS regulations can lead to penalties and recovery actions. As of March 2024, Rs 63,206 crore of Sebi’s total dues relate to CIS or Deemed Public Issue (DPI) cases, primarily involving entities like PACL Ltd and Sahara India Commercial Corporation Ltd. These cases represent portion of the difficult-to-recover amounts, denoting the scale of regulatory challenges in managing unauthorized or defaulting CIS operations.

Why in news?

Sebi’s outstanding dues majorly include penalties related to CIS and DPI cases of large defaulters such as PACL Ltd and Sahara India Commercial Corporation Ltd.

Consumer Food Price Index (CFPI)

The Consumer Food Price Index (CFPI) measures the average change over time in the prices paid by consumers specifically for food items. It is a subset of the broader Consumer Price Index (CPI) but focuses solely on food and beverages, reflecting their unique price dynamics. The CFPI often shows higher volatility than overall inflation due to factors like weather, crop yields, and supply disruptions. In India, the CFPI accounts for about 39.1% of the CPI basket. It is a critical indicator for understanding food inflation trends and their impact on household expenditure and inflation expectations.

Why in news?

CFPI surged by 7.5% in 2023-24 and escalated to 8.9% by June 2024, denoting persistent food inflation despite stringent monetary policy.

Container Corporation of India (Concor)

Container Corporation of India (Concor) is a government-owned logistics company specializing in containerized freight transport. Established in 1988, it operates a network of inland container depots (ICDs) and container freight stations (CFSs) across India. Concor plays a key role in facilitating multimodal transport, integrating rail and road services. It handles portion of India’s containerized cargo and is instrumental in improving supply chain efficiency. Concor also supports export-import operations by providing container handling and storage. Its demand for purchasing containers influences domestic container manufacturing capacity and market dynamics.

Why in news?

Concor is expected to buy approximately 50,000 containers, potentially receiving government subsidies to support local container manufacturing.

Credit to Deposit Ratio (CD Ratio)

The Credit to Deposit Ratio measures the proportion of a bank’s total loans to its total deposits. A ratio around 80% is considered balanced, indicating efficient use of deposits for lending without liquidity stress. Ratios above 100% suggest banks are lending beyond their deposit base, relying on external borrowing. Since September 2023, the CD ratio in India has hovered around 80%, but rising credit growth compared to deposit growth could push it higher. Historical data shows such divergence cycles last on average 41 months, affecting banks’ liquidity and funding strategies.

Why in news?

The RBI and Finance Ministry have flagged the widening gap between credit and deposit growth, with implications for banking sector liquidity and stability, prompting policy attention.

Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC)

The Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) is a high-capacity railway network designed exclusively for freight trains to improve logistics efficiency in India. It spans approximately 3,300 kilometers across eastern and western corridors. The project reduces congestion on passenger routes and allows for faster, heavier freight movement. The DFC uses 25 kV AC electrification and modern signaling systems. It supports trains running at speeds up to 100 km/h with axle loads of 25 tonnes. The DFC is expected to cut logistics costs by about 20-25% and boost industrial growth along its route. Completion is anticipated in 2024.

Why in news?

DFC is nearing full operational status, marking a milestone in Indian Railways’ freight modernization and logistics cost reduction efforts brought into light in the 2024 Railway Budget.

Digital Rupee (e-Rupee)

The digital rupee, or e-rupee, is a central bank digital currency (CBDC) issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Launched as a pilot in December 2022, it exists entirely in electronic form and is legal tender. Unlike bank deposits, the e-rupee does not earn interest and cannot be withdrawn as physical cash. It aims to reduce costs associated with printing currency and enhance transparency in transactions. The digital rupee supports person-to-person and person-to-merchant payments and can be converted to/from bank deposits. Its daily transactions peaked at over 1 million but declined to around 100,000-200,000 by mid-2024.

Why in news?

The RBI’s digital rupee is being integrated by major fintech platforms to increase adoption, marking step in India’s digital currency rollout.

Endemic Food Inflation

Endemic food inflation refers to a persistent, widespread rise in food prices driven primarily by structural factors rather than temporary shocks. In India, it has become a new economic reality due to recurring supply disruptions caused by climate change, including erratic weather and extreme climatic events. Unlike traditional inflation caused by demand-supply imbalances, endemic food inflation stems from reduced crop production and skewed monsoon distribution. From 2016-2020, average food inflation was 2.9%, but it more than doubled to 6.3% in the 2020s. Over 57% of months between June 2020 and June 2024 saw food inflation above 6%.

Why in news?

The Reserve Bank of India’s August 2024 Bulletin brought into light the shift from transitory to endemic food inflation caused by climate change’s impact on crop production and food supply chains.

External Benchmark Lending Rate (EBLR)

External Benchmark Lending Rate (EBLR) is a lending rate system mandated by the RBI in 2019, requiring banks to link floating-rate loans to an external benchmark such as the repo rate, Treasury bill yield, or government bond yield. This system aims to enhance transparency and improve the transmission of monetary policy changes to borrowers. EBLR-linked loans adjust interest rates automatically when the benchmark changes, affecting EMIs promptly. It primarily applies to new floating-rate personal, retail, and MSME loans. The repo rate is the most commonly used benchmark under EBLR, making RBI’s policy decisions directly impactful on loan rates.

Why in news?

The RBI’s decision to keep the repo rate steady at 6.5% means EBLR-linked loan rates and EMIs will likely remain unchanged for borrowers.

Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of Sugarcane

The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) is the minimum price fixed by the Government of India that sugar mills must pay to sugarcane farmers. It is calculated annually based on the cost of production and market conditions to ensure farmers receive adequate compensation. FRP impacts the pricing of ethanol produced from sugarcane juice, as ethanol prices are linked to FRP to maintain profitability for sugar mills and farmers. The FRP system helps stabilize the sugar industry and supports rural economies dependent on sugarcane cultivation.

Why in news?

Ethanol price revisions are being considered based on the FRP of sugarcane to encourage higher ethanol production and achieve the 20% blending target by 2025-26.

Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC)

The Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) is an apex-level body in India formed in 2010 to strengthen and institutionalize financial stability, financial sector development, and inter-regulatory coordination. Chaired by the Finance Minister, it includes heads of financial sector regulators like RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, and PFRDA. The FSDC addresses systemic risks and coordinates policy responses across sectors. It also monitors macroprudential risks and financial market developments. The council meets periodically to discuss emerging financial challenges and to ensure the stability of the Indian financial system.

Why in news?

The FSDC discussed the challenges posed by unauthorized digital lending apps at its 28th meeting in February 2024, denoting regulatory concerns.

Flexible Inflation Targeting (FIT) Regime

The Flexible Inflation Targeting (FIT) regime is a monetary policy framework adopted by the Reserve Bank of India in 2016. It mandates the RBI to maintain consumer price index (CPI) inflation within a target range of 2-6%, with a mid-point target of 4%. The framework emphasizes transparency and accountability, requiring the RBI to announce inflation targets and explain deviations. FIT allows the RBI to balance inflation control with growth objectives by adjusting policy rates flexibly. It replaced earlier monetary targeting systems and aligned India with global central banking practices promoting price stability and economic growth.

Why in news?

The RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee reiterated its commitment to the FIT regime by keeping inflation targets and policy stance unchanged amid persistent food inflation concerns.

Foreign Exchange Management (Non-debt Instruments) Rules

The Foreign Exchange Management (Non-debt Instruments) Rules regulate foreign investments in India, covering equity instruments, share swaps, and other non-debt financial instruments. Introduced under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), these rules govern how foreign entities can invest in Indian companies and vice versa. They include provisions on approval requirements, definitions of control, and treatment of investments from countries sharing land borders with India. The rules are regularly amended to align with other laws like the Companies Act and SEBI regulations, ensuring consistency and promoting ease of doing business. Recent changes clarify share swap conditions and expand startup definitions under these rules.

Why in news?

The Government of India amended these rules in August 2024 to simplify foreign investment procedures, clarify share swap provisions, and harmonize definitions to boost foreign direct investment and startup funding.

Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)

The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) was enacted in India in 1999 to regulate foreign exchange transactions, facilitate external trade, and promote orderly forex market development. It replaced the earlier Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). FEMA governs foreign investments, remittances, and cross-border financial transactions through rules and regulations enforced by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Enforcement Directorate (ED). Violations can lead to penalties, confiscation of property, and legal action. FEMA aims to maintain the stability of the Indian currency and ensure compliance with international financial norms. Its provisions cover foreign direct investment (FDI) and overseas direct investment (ODI).

Why in news?

India’s Enforcement Directorate is investigating Byju’s and its founder for alleged FEMA violations involving Rs 9,362.35 crore related to foreign investments and remittances.

Godda Ultra Super-Critical Thermal Power Plant

The Godda power plant in Jharkhand, is an ultra super-critical thermal power plant with a net capacity of 1,496 megawatts. It is the first transnational power project in India, supplying all generated electricity to Bangladesh under a 25-year Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) signed in 2017 with the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB). The plant uses coal imported from the Carmichael mine in Australia. Ultra super-critical technology operates at higher temperatures and pressures than conventional plants, improving efficiency and reducing emissions. The Godda project contributes about 6% of Bangladesh’s overall installed generation capacity as of June 2023.

Why in news?

The Government of India amended power export rules allowing rerouting of power from Godda to Indian grids if Bangladesh delays payments, raising concerns about cross-border energy agreements and supply reliability.

Government Capex

Government capex refers to capital expenditure by the government on infrastructure, machinery, and other physical assets to boost economic growth. It includes spending on roads, railways, energy projects, and public buildings. Government capex is a major driver of industrial demand and employment in India. Fluctuations in capex can influence GDP growth, industrial output, and private investment. It is often adjusted based on fiscal priorities and economic conditions. Capex levels also affect sectors like construction goods and capital goods production.

Why in news?

A slowdown in government capex is expected amid election-related spending caution, impacting industrial output and moderating GDP growth projections for early 2024-25.

Green Shoots

Green shoots is an economic term referring to early signs of recovery in a sluggish or declining economy. The phrase was popularized during the 2008 global financial crisis to describe nascent improvements in economic indicators such as consumer spending, industrial output, or employment. It signals cautious optimism among policymakers and investors about a turnaround. In India’s rural FMCG sector, green shoots indicate rising consumption volumes, increased utility penetration, and improved savings, suggesting a revival after a slow start to the financial year. The term puts stress on the fragile and initial nature of economic recovery phases.

Why in news?

FMCG companies in India are witnessing green shoots in rural markets, marked by volume growth and increased consumption, signaling a potential revival in the sector during FY25.

GST Composition Scheme (CLS)

The GST Composition Scheme is a simplified tax system for small taxpayers in India with an aggregate turnover limit of Rs 1.5 crore (Rs 75 lakh for special category states). It allows payment of tax at a fixed rate on turnover instead of regular GST rates. Taxpayers under CLS are exempted from detailed GST return filing but must file a quarterly return (GSTR-4). The scheme aims to reduce compliance burden but prohibits claiming input tax credit. Eligibility criteria include turnover limits and restrictions on the nature of business. Non-compliance or exceeding turnover thresholds disqualifies taxpayers from the scheme.

Why in news?

The CAG report marks misuse and non-compliance by taxpayers under the GST Composition Scheme, urging the Finance Ministry to identify high-risk taxpayers and verify declared sales values to prevent tax evasion.

Harmonized System of Nomenclature (HSN) Codes

The Harmonized System of Nomenclature (HSN) is an internationally standardized system of names and numbers for classifying traded products. India’s GST classification uses HSN codes divided into 21 sections and 1,244 headings. The HSN system helps determine applicable GST rates but has complexities due to overlapping product categories, causing tax disputes. Minor differences in product composition can change tax slabs drastically, such as flavoured milk being taxed differently if classified under milk or beverages. The HSN is crucial for customs and indirect taxation but requires continuous updates to reflect evolving goods and services.

Why in news?

HSN codes are under scrutiny for simplification and removal of ambiguities as part of the GST classification overhaul to enable smoother tax rate rationalization.

Housing Finance Companies (HFCs)

Housing Finance Companies (HFCs) are specialized non-banking financial institutions engaged primarily in providing housing loans. They operate under the regulatory framework of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the National Housing Bank (NHB). HFCs raise funds through public deposits, which are subject to prudential norms including limits on deposit acceptance and mandatory maintenance of liquid assets. They must obtain a minimum investment grade credit rating annually to accept or renew deposits. The ceiling on public deposits is linked to the net owned fund, currently restricted to 1.5 times. HFCs also have the option to issue co-branded credit cards and hedge operational risks.

Why in news?

RBI has tightened regulations on HFCs accepting public deposits, aligning them with deposit-taking NBFCs by halving deposit ceilings and reducing maximum deposit tenure to 60 months.

Inferred Lithium Deposit

An inferred deposit is a mineral resource classification indicating low geological confidence based on limited sampling and geological evidence. It represents the least certain category of mineral resources under international standards like CRIRSCO. Inferred resources cannot be assumed to be economically viable without further exploration and studies. The Reasi lithium deposit in Jammu & Kashmir is currently classified as inferred, meaning detailed drilling and feasibility studies are needed to upgrade its status. This classification affects investor confidence as it lacks sufficient data on quantity, grade, and economic feasibility for mining.

Why in news?

The Reasi lithium deposit was announced as inferred in early 2023; its uncertain status has contributed to the failure of two auctions for mining rights.

Inflation Indexation in Capital Gains Tax

Inflation indexation adjusts the purchase price of an asset to reflect inflation, ensuring capital gains tax is levied only on real gains. Introduced in countries like the UK (1982) and Australia (1985), it was discontinued later to simplify tax systems. Currently, only Mexico and Israel offer inflation indexation on capital gains. Without it, taxpayers pay tax on nominal gains, which can lead to overtaxation during high inflation. India introduced indexation following the Chelliah Committee’s advice but removed it in the 2024-25 budget, aligning with global practices except for the rare exceptions.

Why in news?

India’s 2024-25 budget removed inflation indexation for capital gains tax, sparking controversy and comparisons with international tax regimes.

Inflation Reduction Act

The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), passed in August 2022, is U.S. federal law targeting healthcare, climate change, and tax reform. It authorizes Medicare to negotiate drug prices for the first time, aiming to reduce prescription costs for seniors. The IRA also invests over $370 billion in clean energy and climate initiatives. Vice President Kamala Harris cast the crucial tie-breaking vote in the Senate to pass the bill. The act is expected to lower the federal deficit and curb inflationary pressures. It marks one of the largest climate investments in U.S. history.

Why in news?

The Inflation Reduction Act enabled the recent drug price deal announced by Biden and Harris, which reduces costs for 10 key medicines, benefiting seniors and Medicare.

InvITs (Infrastructure Investment Trusts)

InvITs are investment vehicles that pool funds from investors to invest in infrastructure assets such as roads, power plants, and telecom towers. They provide regular income through dividends and interest, making infrastructure investment accessible to retail investors. InvITs are regulated by SEBI in India and must distribute at least 90% of their net distributable cash flows to investors. The recent Budget 2024 reduced the period for long-term capital gains (LTCG) on InvIT units from 36 months to 12 months, encouraging shorter holding periods and potentially increasing liquidity and investor participation in infrastructure projects.

Why in news?

Budget 2024 shortened the LTCG holding period for InvIT units from 36 to 12 months, aiming to attract more investors and enhance liquidity in infrastructure investments.

Loan Evergreening

Loan evergreening is a fraudulent practice where banks extend new loans to borrowers to repay old loans, masking default and non-performing assets. This practice artificially inflates asset quality and delays recognition of bad debts. It is often facilitated by mule accounts and fraudulent transactions. Loan evergreening can mislead regulators and investors about the financial health of banks. The Reserve Bank of India has brought into light concerns over this practice, linking it to the misuse of mule accounts for laundering money and sustaining fraudulent loan cycles.

Why in news?

The RBI has expressed concerns about loan evergreening practices facilitated by mule accounts, stressing stricter monitoring to prevent fraudulent loan cycles and protect banking integrity.

Mahanadi Coalfields Limited

Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL) is a subsidiary of Coal India Limited, operating primarily in Odisha and Chhattisgarh. It is one of India’s largest coal producers, supplying coal for power generation and industrial use. Established in 1992, MCL manages several open-cast and underground coal mines. The company plays a critical role in the energy sector, supporting thermal power plants and steel production. MCL faces regulatory and environmental challenges but remains a major public sector undertaking. Its financial health is sensitive to changes in mining taxes and royalties, as brought into light in recent legal debates on retrospective taxation.

Why in news?

MCL’s interests were represented before the Supreme Court, warning that retrospective tax demands could exceed the net worth of companies like it, risking bankruptcy.

Marginal Cost of Funds-based Lending Rate (MCLR)

The Marginal Cost of Funds-based Lending Rate (MCLR) is the minimum interest rate below which banks cannot lend, introduced by RBI in 2016 to improve transmission of policy rate changes. It is calculated based on the marginal cost of funds, including the cost of borrowings and return on net worth, plus operating costs and tenor premium. MCLR replaced the earlier base rate system to ensure faster adjustment of lending rates in response to repo rate changes. Banks revise MCLR monthly or quarterly. It affects loans not linked to external benchmarks like the repo rate, such as certain home and personal loans.

Why in news?

With the RBI expected to keep the repo rate steady, lending rates tied to MCLR may still increase as full transmission of previous repo hikes has not occurred.

Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS)

The MEIS was an export promotion scheme aimed at incentivizing exports of selected sectors. It provided duty credit scrips to exporters but was found non-compliant with WTO rules, leading to its replacement by RoDTEP. Unlike RoDTEP, which refunds embedded taxes on exported products, MEIS focused on encouraging exports rather than neutralizing tax incidence. MEIS faced challenges regarding WTO compatibility, prompting India to phase it out and introduce RoDTEP as a compliant alternative.

Why in news?

MEIS is referenced as the predecessor to the RoDTEP scheme, which the government is considering extending to boost exports.

Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) of India is a six-member panel constituted in 2016 to set key policy interest rates to control inflation and stabilize the economy. It comprises three members from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), including the Governor, and three appointed by the central government. The MPC meets at least four times a year to review economic conditions and decide on the repo rate and other policy tools. Decisions are made by majority vote, with the Governor holding a casting vote in case of ties. The MPC’s inflation target is set at 4%, with a tolerance band of ±2%.

Why in news?

The MPC held its August 2024 meeting, keeping the inflation forecast unchanged at 4.5% and emphasizing the need to control food inflation while supporting growth through investment and consumer demand.

National Highways Logistics Management (NHLM)

National Highways Logistics Management (NHLM) is a wholly owned subsidiary of the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), established to optimize freight and passenger transport logistics. It focuses on developing integrated transport hubs and logistics parks to enhance multimodal connectivity. NHLM aims to streamline cargo movement by linking roadways with railways, airways, and waterways, reducing logistics costs and transit times. It plays a key role in implementing the government’s vision of seamless transport integration. NHLM also works on digitizing freight operations and promoting green logistics solutions to improve sustainability in the transport sector.

Why in news?

NHLM is spearheading the development of integrated transport hubs in Katra, Tirupati, Varanasi, and Nagpur to centralize and improve passenger and freight movement across multiple transport modes.

National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI) BASE Platform

The BASE (Bharat Aadhaar Seeded Enabler) platform is a digital infrastructure developed by NPCI to facilitate direct benefit transfers (DBT) and enable beneficiaries to verify Aadhaar seeding status and perform other digital transactions. It integrates regional rural banks (RRBs) and cooperative banks into a unified payment ecosystem, improving transparency and efficiency in government subsidy disbursements. The platform supports real-time authentication and transaction processing, reducing delays and fraud risks. It plays important role in financial inclusion by linking Aadhaar-based identity verification with banking services in rural India. BASE is a relatively recent initiative to modernize rural banking.

Why in news?

The government is mandating state-run banks to onboard their RRBs onto the NPCI BASE platform to enhance digital transaction capabilities and improve direct benefit transfer efficiency amid recent cybersecurity concerns.

NBFC-Account Aggregators (NBFC-AAs)

NBFC-AAs are a newly regulated category under the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) that manage a consent-based architecture for the secure sharing of financial data between multiple financial entities. They enable consumers to authorize the sharing of their financial information, such as bank statements, with third-party financial service providers for better credit underwriting and services. The RBI has licensed 16 companies to operate as NBFC-AAs, including Perfios, Finvu, Cams Finserv, NeSL Asset Data, PhonePe, DigiO, and Setu. As of mid-2024, around 77.2 million accounts are linked to this ecosystem, facilitating loans worth approximately Rs 42,000 crore.

Why in news?

NBFC-AAs have become targets of cyber fraud, prompting industry-wide measures to restrict certain features and enhance security following warnings and meetings led by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) and RBI.

Net Owned Fund (NOF)

Net Owned Fund (NOF) refers to the net worth of a financial institution, calculated as paid-up equity capital plus free reserves minus intangible assets and accumulated losses. NOF is a critical parameter used by regulators like RBI to determine the financial strength and capital adequacy of entities such as NBFCs and HFCs. It serves as a base for calculating limits on public deposits and lending exposure. A higher NOF indicates better capitalization and risk absorption capacity. Regulators often require a minimum NOF for licensing and ongoing operations to ensure the institution’s financial stability and protect depositors’ interests.

Why in news?

RBI has set the maximum public deposit limit for HFCs at 1.5 times their NOF, down from 3 times, to reduce risks related to deposit acceptance.

Non-food inflation

Non-food inflation is the measure of inflation excluding the food and beverages component from the overall Consumer Price Index. It is considered less volatile and more responsive to monetary policy actions compared to headline inflation. In India, during the recent interest rate cycle, non-food inflation fell within the RBI’s upper tolerance band of 6% by April 2023 and was below the 4% target by September 2023. This contrasted with headline inflation, which remained around 5%. Non-food inflation is often used by central banks to assess underlying inflation trends, filtering out supply-driven shocks from food prices.

Why in news?

The Economic Survey suggested excluding food prices from the inflation target due to their supply-driven nature, denoting the stability of non-food inflation.

One District One Product (ODOP)

One District One Product (ODOP) is an economic development initiative encouraging each district or region to identify and promote a unique product or craft, enhancing local economies and cultural heritage. ODOP supports value addition, branding, and market access for these products, often linked to geographical indications (GIs) and Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). It encourages rural entrepreneurship, improves livelihoods, and preserves traditional knowledge. The concept originated in Japan and has been adopted by various countries to boost regional development. ODOP can be integrated with agritourism by offering customized experiences around local specialties, increasing tourist engagement and income diversification.

Why in news?

Bhutan is drafting policies on ODOP to strengthen its agritourism sector by promoting niche products and sustainable economic development.

Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)

The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card allows foreign citizens of Indian origin to live and work in India indefinitely without needing a visa. OCI holders cannot vote, hold public office, or buy agricultural land in India. OCI status is lifelong but can be revoked under certain circumstances. OCI cards were introduced in 2005 to facilitate easier travel and investment for the Indian diaspora. Unlike the Non-Resident Indian (NRI) status, OCI is not dual citizenship but provides several privileges similar to Indian citizens, excluding political rights and certain property ownership. OCI investments on a non-repatriation basis are now excluded from indirect foreign investment calculations.

Why in news?

New Indian foreign investment rules now differentiate OCI investments, excluding certain OCI investments from indirect foreign investment, encouraging greater participation of NRIs and OCIs in the economy.

Qualified Institutional Placement (QIP)

Qualified Institutional Placement (QIP) is a capital-raising tool used by listed companies to issue equity shares, convertible debentures, or other securities to qualified institutional buyers (QIBs) without the need for extensive regulatory approval. QIPs allow faster fundraising compared to public issues, with fewer procedural requirements. QIBs include mutual funds, foreign portfolio investors, and insurance companies. The pricing of QIP securities is based on a formula linked to market prices, ensuring fairness. QIPs are popular in India for raising large sums quickly and have raised more capital than rights issues in recent years.

Why in news?

Data shows QIPs raised Rs 68,972 crore in FY24, far surpassing the Rs 15,110 crore raised through rights issues, denoting their growing preference among Indian companies.

Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER)

The Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) is an index that measures a currency’s value against a basket of other currencies, weighted by trade balances. It adjusts for inflation differences between countries, offering a more accurate reflection of a currency’s true competitiveness. A higher REER indicates a currency is overvalued, making exports more expensive and imports cheaper. Central banks monitor REER to guide monetary policy. REER values above 100 suggest overvaluation relative to the base period. It is widely used by policymakers to assess trade competitiveness beyond nominal exchange rate movements.

Why in news?

REER has recently climbed to a near four-year high for the Indian rupee, prompting RBI interventions to reduce overvaluation and boost export competitiveness.

Reverse Charge Mechanism (RCM) under GST

The Reverse Charge Mechanism (RCM) under GST shifts the liability to pay tax from the supplier to the recipient of goods or services. It is applied in specific cases where the government wants to simplify tax collection or avoid tax evasion. Under RCM, the recipient must self-assess and pay the tax directly to the government. This mechanism is commonly used in real estate transactions, import of services, and certain notified supplies. RCM reduces compliance burden on small suppliers but increases responsibility for recipients. It is legally supported but often leads to disputes over contractual obligations in joint development projects.

Why in news?

RCM is central to the GST dispute on whether landowners or developers should pay tax on transfer of development rights, with developers contesting payment responsibility despite legal clarity favoring them.

SAARC Currency Swap Framework

The SAARC Currency Swap Framework is a financial arrangement among South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) member countries designed to provide liquidity support during balance of payments crises. It enables member central banks to swap their currencies to address short-term foreign exchange shortages. The framework aims to strengthen regional economic stability and reduce dependency on external financial aid. Participating countries include India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Afghanistan. The mechanism is intended to encourage monetary cooperation and facilitate smoother trade and investment flows within South Asia by mitigating currency volatility risks.

Why in news?

The RBI annual report mentioned the SAARC Currency Swap Framework as a potential tool to promote the rupee’s internationalisation and enhance regional financial cooperation.

SEBI’s Closed Ecosystem for Fee Collection

SEBI is developing a closed ecosystem for fee collection exclusively for registered Investment Advisers and Research Analysts. This mechanism aims to ensure that investor payments reach only authorized entities, preventing fraud and unauthorized advisory services. The closed system will help investors identify and avoid unregistered IAs and RAs, enhancing investor protection and regulatory compliance. This initiative is part of SEBI’s broader effort to strengthen transparency, accountability, and security in the financial advisory sector, particularly as AI tools become more prevalent in advisory services.

Why in news?

SEBI plans to introduce a closed fee collection system to protect investors from unregistered advisers and improve payment transparency in advisory services.

Second-round effects of food inflation

Second-round effects refer to the phenomenon where initial food price shocks lead to broader inflationary pressures across the economy. These effects operate mainly through the wages–price link, where rising food prices increase household wage demands, pushing up overall costs and prices. Additionally, inflation expectations become unanchored as households anticipate continued inflation, further fueling price rises. This transmission makes inflation generalized rather than confined to food items. Research by the Reserve Bank of India and former deputy governor Michael Patra marks these effects as a major challenge for monetary policy, as they can undermine efforts to control inflation.

Why in news?

The RBI warns that persistent food inflation can trigger second-round effects, complicating inflation targeting and monetary policy effectiveness.

Sovereign Gold Bonds (SGBs)

Sovereign Gold Bonds, issued by the Reserve Bank of India on behalf of the government, represent a financial instrument linked to gold prices. They have a fixed maturity period of eight years with an option for premature redemption after 5, 6, or 7 years. Investors earn a fixed interest rate of 2.5% per annum on the initial investment amount. SGBs are exempt from capital gains tax if held till maturity or redeemed early through RBI. Selling SGBs in the secondary market attracts capital gains tax, with long-term gains taxed at 12.5% without indexation benefits. They eliminate risks of physical gold ownership like theft or insurance.

Why in news?

RBI announced early redemption for SGBs issued between May 2017 and March 2020, allowing investors to redeem their bonds before maturity in two phases starting October 11, 2024.

Tiruppur

Tiruppur is a major textile and knitwear production hub in Tamil Nadu, known as the “Knitwear Capital of India.” It contributes over 90% of India’s cotton knitwear exports and employs around 600,000 people. The region produces a wide range of garments, including T-shirts, shirts, and innerwear, with portion of output destined for Western markets. Tiruppur’s industry faced export challenges due to reduced orders from the US and Europe amid the pandemic and geopolitical tensions. It benefits from India’s free trade agreements, such as the India-Australia FTA, which have increased orders from Australian retailers like Kmart, Target, BIG W, and Woolworth.

Why in news?

Tiruppur is gaining traction as Western brands divert orders from Bangladesh due to social unrest and take advantage of trade agreements, boosting exports despite previous export declines.

Transmission of Monetary Policy

The transmission of monetary policy describes how central bank decisions on interest rates affect the broader economy. It involves multiple channels, including borrowing costs, consumer spending, investment, and inflation expectations. Transmission is often delayed, with effects materializing months or even years after policy changes. Effectiveness depends on economic conditions; for example, supply shocks like droughts can reduce monetary policy’s impact on inflation. Central banks face challenges in timing interventions to balance inflation control and economic growth. The 2024 Jackson Hole theme emphasized reassessing transmission effectiveness post-pandemic and amid global inflation spikes.

Why in news?

The 2024 Jackson Hole Symposium’s theme focuses on reassessing the effectiveness and transmission of monetary policy after recent economic shocks like the pandemic and inflation surge.

Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit (TEU)

The Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit (TEU) is a standardized maritime industry measurement used to describe the capacity of container ships and terminals. One TEU represents the dimensions of a standard 20-foot long shipping container, measuring approximately 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8.5 feet high. The unit helps in quantifying cargo volume and port handling capacity. TEUs are essential for global trade logistics, enabling uniformity in shipping operations. Larger containers, such as 40-foot containers, are counted as 2 TEUs. The concept dates back to the 1950s and revolutionized container shipping efficiency worldwide.

Why in news?

The Vadhvan Port project will have a handling capacity of 23.2 million TEUs, making it one of the world’s largest container ports upon completion.

Unified Payments Interface (UPI)

Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is an instant real-time payment system developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) that facilitates inter-bank transactions. Launched in 2016, UPI allows users to link multiple bank accounts to a single mobile application for seamless fund transfers. It uses a unique virtual payment address (VPA) eliminating the need to share sensitive bank details. UPI supports both peer-to-peer and merchant payments and integrates with various payment apps. It has become one of the world’s fastest-growing payment systems, processing over 8 billion transactions monthly by mid-2024. UPI transactions are settled in real time, 24/7.

Why in news?

UPI is central to the adoption of the digital rupee, with fintech companies integrating it to enable e-rupee transactions, expanding digital currency use in India’s payment ecosystem.

UPI Interoperable Cash Deposit

The UPI Interoperable Cash Deposit service allows users to deposit cash at ATMs using the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) without requiring a physical debit or credit card. It supports deposits into the user’s own or any other bank account, enhancing convenience. This system leverages cash recycler ATMs that can both accept and dispense cash, improving ATM efficiency. The interoperability feature is step in digitizing cash transactions, reducing dependency on physical cards and enabling seamless banking experiences across multiple banks and ATM operators.

Why in news?

NPCI launched the UPI Interoperable Cash Deposit service to transform ATM infrastructure and promote digital banking at the Global Fintech Fest in August 2024.

UPI-based Block Mechanism

The UPI-based block mechanism allows investors to trade in the secondary market by blocking funds in their bank accounts without transferring money upfront to trading members. Introduced by SEBI in January 2019 for IPO applications, it was extended in beta form to secondary market trading for individuals and HUFs from January 2024. This mechanism enables investors to earn interest on blocked funds since money remains in their accounts until trade settlement. It currently applies only to the cash segment with daily block limits. The system enhances liquidity management and reduces upfront fund transfers in trading.

Why in news?

SEBI proposed making the UPI-based block mechanism mandatory for QSBs to offer in secondary market trading for retail investors.

Vadhvan Port

Vadhvan Port is a developing deep-sea port located near Dahanu town in Palghar district, Maharashtra. The project, valued at ₹76,000 crores, aims to enhance India’s maritime trade by providing direct access to international shipping routes. The port is designed to handle large cargo volumes and reduce congestion at existing ports. It is strategically positioned to serve the western coast of India, boosting regional economic growth. The port’s infrastructure includes modern cargo handling facilities and connectivity to road and rail networks. It is expected to increase export-import efficiency and create employment opportunities in the region.

Why in news?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will lay the foundation stone of the ₹76,000 crore Vadhvan Port project on August 30, 2024, to boost trade and international shipping connectivity in Palghar district, Maharashtra.

Venture Highway

Venture Highway is an Indian venture capital firm focusing on early-stage investments in technology-driven startups, particularly in sectors like electric vehicles, SaaS, and consumer internet. Founded in 2017, it supports entrepreneurs with capital, mentorship, and strategic guidance. The firm is known for backing innovative startups in India’s emerging EV ecosystem and clean technology sectors. Venture Highway emphasizes sustainable business models and has a portfolio that includes companies working on mobility solutions, energy storage, and smart infrastructure. It often collaborates with global investors to scale Indian startups internationally.

Why in news?

Venture Highway is among the investors funding Wings EV, the company launching the Robin electric microcar, supporting India’s growing EV market.

Viability Gap Funding (VGF)

Viability Gap Funding (VGF) is a financial support mechanism used by governments to make infrastructure projects economically viable. It provides a one-time or deferred grant to cover the gap between project costs and expected revenues. VGFs are typically used in public-private partnership (PPP) projects to attract private investment. The scheme aims to reduce financial risks and encourage development in sectors where market returns alone are insufficient. In India, VGFs have been applied in sectors like transportation, energy, and urban infrastructure. The funding is often disbursed after project milestones are met to ensure accountability and progress.

Why in news?

The government is considering VGF to financially support local manufacturing of shipping containers to address shortages and rising costs post-Covid.

Vostro Accounts

Vostro accounts are bank accounts held by a foreign bank in a domestic bank in the domestic currency. In the context of India-Russia trade, Russian banks hold large amounts of Indian Rupees in Vostro accounts with Indian banks. These accounts facilitate easier settlement of bilateral trade without converting currencies multiple times. Vostro accounts differ from Nostro accounts, which are domestic accounts held by foreign banks in their home currency. The accumulation of rupees in Russian Vostro accounts has led to proposals allowing these funds to be invested in Indian stocks and securities to manage currency imbalances and enhance financial integration.

Why in news?

India-Russia trade imbalances have caused Russian banks to accumulate rupees in Vostro accounts, prompting discussions on investing these funds in Indian securities to ease currency management amid sanctions and complex currency conversions.

Windfall Tax

Windfall tax is a special tax imposed on companies that earn unexpectedly high profits, often due to sudden market changes like price spikes. It is typically levied on sectors like oil and gas during times of global price surges. The tax aims to redistribute excess profits for public benefit or government revenue. India has imposed windfall taxes on petroleum products multiple times, particularly during periods of high international crude prices. The tax is controversial as it can affect investment sentiment and profitability but is used as a fiscal tool to balance corporate gains and consumer interests.

Why in news?

The Bill aims to protect oil and gas producers from policy changes such as windfall tax impositions, ensuring stability in their economic returns during the lease period.

World Economic Forum’s Advanced Air Mobility White Paper

The World Economic Forum’s white paper on Advanced Air Mobility discusses integrating automation and new technologies into aviation to improve efficiency and safety. It emphasizes addressing climate change impacts by reducing emissions and enhancing turbulence prediction using AI, simulations, and sensors. The paper explores challenges like regulatory frameworks, infrastructure development, and public acceptance of automated aircraft. It supports innovations such as autonomous flight systems and urban air mobility solutions, aiming to transform aviation with cleaner, smarter, and safer technologies amid evolving environmental and operational conditions.

Why in news?

The white paper was released amid rising turbulence incidents and climate-related aviation challenges, focusing on technological solutions and automation to shape the future of flight.

Geography (Indian & Physical)

Ashoka Seamount

The Ashoka Seamount is an underwater volcanic mountain located in the Indian Ocean, spanning an area of 180 square kilometers. It was discovered in 2012 by Indian oceanographers aboard the Russian vessel Akademik Nikolay Strakhov. This seamount is named after Emperor Ashoka, a prominent ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. Seamounts like Ashoka are important for marine biodiversity as they often serve as habitats and feeding grounds for various marine species. Its oval shape and geological features contribute to understanding the tectonic and volcanic activity along the Southwest Indian Ridge.

Why in news?

The Ashoka Seamount was recently named by the International Hydrographic Organization and UNESCO’s IOC following its discovery by Indian researchers, as part of efforts to name underwater features in the Indian Ocean.

Bab el-Mandeb Strait

The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is a narrow waterway connecting the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. It is approximately 20 miles wide at its narrowest point and serves as a critical chokepoint for global maritime trade, especially for oil shipments from the Middle East to Europe and North America. The strait separates the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa. Control of this strait impacts shipping security and energy supply routes. It has been a hotspot for attacks by the Iran-backed Houthi rebels targeting vessels perceived to be linked to Israel or its allies, disrupting global fuel exports and maritime traffic.

Why in news?

The Bab el-Mandeb Strait has become a flashpoint due to repeated attacks by Houthi rebels on ships, causing India to reroute its petroleum exports to Europe around Africa instead of through this strait.

Bettatur Village

Bettatur is a village located in the Raichur district of north Karnataka, known for its arid climate and dependence on monsoon rains for agriculture. The village’s farmers primarily cultivate cotton and other crops on small plots averaging around 2 hectares. The region frequently experiences erratic rainfall, leading to droughts and crop failures. Bettatur is part of a larger drought-prone area where 95% of talukas were declared drought-hit in 2023. The village exemplifies the challenges faced by rainfed agricultural communities in India, where timely monsoon rains are critical for crop survival and local livelihoods.

Why in news?

Bettatur received above-normal rainfall in May 2024, an unusual event that led to early sowing of cotton, but subsequent lack of rain threatens the crop and marks ongoing climate risks in Raichur.

Bison Valley Panchayat

Bison Valley Panchayat is a local administrative region in the Idukki district of Kerala, situated downstream of the Chokramudi Hills. It is home to approximately 2,000 families, including tribal colonies. The area is known for its extensive cardamom plantations, which contribute to local agriculture and economy. The valley’s topography and location make it vulnerable to flooding and landslides, especially during the monsoon season. It has been designated a red zone for landslide susceptibility by the Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA). The region relies on small-scale irrigation infrastructure like check dams for agriculture.

Why in news?

Bison Valley Panchayat is affected by illegal construction and mining upstream, increasing the risk of landslips and flooding, threatening the safety of local residents and plantations.

Burhi Gandak River

The Burhi Gandak River is a tributary of the Ganga River, flowing through Bihar and originating in the Someshwar Hills of Nepal. It travels approximately 320 kilometers before joining the Ganga near Khagaria district. The river basin is prone to flooding during the monsoon due to heavy rainfall and silt deposition, affecting agriculture and settlements. Burhi Gandak has several tributaries including the Dubhara and Masan. It plays an important role in irrigation but also causes recurrent floods, impacting the flood-prone districts of north Bihar. The river’s name means “Old Gandak,” distinguishing it from the main Gandak River.

Why in news?

Rising water levels in the Burhi Gandak contributed to flooding in north Bihar, submerging villages and destroying standing crops.

Choes

Choes are local seasonal watercourses found in Punjab, carrying rainwater from hills to plains during monsoon. These natural channels can overflow or breach during heavy rains, causing floods in adjacent agricultural lands. The term is specific to the Punjabi region and denotes smaller tributaries or streams, often dry outside the monsoon season. Breaches in choes contributed to the inundation of fields during the 2023 floods in Punjab. Their management is crucial for flood control and water drainage in the region’s agrarian landscape.

Why in news?

Breaches in choes due to heavy monsoon rains in July 2023 caused flooding in Punjab’s agricultural lands, worsening the impact of floods from the Satluj and Beas rivers.

Diaphragm Wall in Polavaram Project

A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall constructed underground to provide structural support and water-tightness in dam and canal projects. In the Polavaram project, the diaphragm wall acts as a critical barrier to prevent seepage and ensure dam stability. The original wall was severely damaged during the 2020 Godavari floods, compromising the project’s safety and functionality. Reconstruction of this wall is estimated to cost ₹993 crore. Diaphragm walls are built using slurry trench techniques and are vital in large hydraulic engineering projects to withstand water pressure and seismic forces.

Why in news?

The Andhra Pradesh government announced plans to construct a new diaphragm wall for the Polavaram project after the original was damaged in 2020 floods.

Dochum

Dochum is a small locality in Sikkim that serves as a temporary diversion route when the main Singtam-Dikchu road is inaccessible. It is situated along the same road corridor but bypasses the damaged sections caused by landslides or infrastructure failures. Being a less prominent route, Dochum often handles local traffic and is critical during emergencies when primary roads are blocked. The area is part of the fragile Himalayan terrain, where road connectivity is vital for residents and relief efforts, especially during natural disasters or infrastructure repairs.

Why in news?

A temporary diversion through Dochum was established to maintain connectivity after the Singtam-Dikchu road became inaccessible due to the landslide near the NHPC dam.

Earth’s Terminator

The Earth’s terminator is the moving line dividing day and night on the planet. It is caused by Earth’s rotation relative to the Sun. The terminator passes through most locations twice daily, marking sunrise and sunset. Near the poles, it behaves differently due to long periods of continuous daylight or darkness. The terminator appears as a thin, glowing line on the horizon, where the atmosphere’s blue meets the golden sunrise hues. Its shape changes with the seasons, appearing straight during equinoxes and curved during solstices due to Earth’s axial tilt of 23.5 degrees.

Why in news?

NASA released an image of the Earth’s terminator from the ISS, showcasing the boundary between night and day as seen from space.

Eight Degree Channel

The Eight Degree Channel is a broad sea channel in the Indian Ocean separating the Maldives from the Lakshadweep Islands of India. It lies near the 8° North latitude, hence its name. The channel is strategically important for maritime navigation and security in the region. It is approximately 200 km wide and is a key maritime route connecting the Arabian Sea with the Bay of Bengal. The channel is for India’s naval operations and monitoring of maritime traffic, especially given the increasing Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean.

Why in news?

India and Maldives relations were brought into light recently, with External Affairs Minister Jaishankar visiting Maldives, a country separated from India’s Lakshadweep by the Eight Degree Channel, underscoring strategic and economic ties.

Golden Quadrilateral

The Golden Quadrilateral is a highway network connecting India’s four major metropolitan cities – Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. Spanning approximately 5,846 kilometers, it was commissioned in 2001 to enhance road connectivity and economic integration. The network supports the industrial smart cities initiative by serving as a backbone for the development of industrial corridors and smart cities. It facilitates faster transportation of goods and labor, boosting manufacturing and trade. The Golden Quadrilateral is one of the largest highway projects in India and has reduced travel time between major economic hubs.

Why in news?

The industrial smart cities are planned as a “Grand necklace” on the backbone of the Golden Quadrilateral, linking them to major transport routes to enhance industrial growth and regional development.

Great Bend of the Yarlung Zangbo

The Great Bend is a sharp turn in the Yarlung Zangbo River near Tibet’s border with Arunachal Pradesh. It flows around Mt. Namcha Barwa (7,782 m) and Mt. Gyala Peri (7,294 m), creating a gorge 505 km long and 6,009 m deep, one of the deepest on Earth. The river changes names downstream, becoming the Siang in Arunachal Pradesh, then joining the Dibang and Lohit rivers in Assam to form the Brahmaputra, which flows as the Jamuna in Bangladesh. The bend’s unique geography influences regional hydrology and sediment transport.

Why in news?

The Great Bend is relevant due to increased sedimentation and landslide risks upstream that threaten the river systems downstream, affecting multiple countries.

Guindy Lodge and Guindy Deer Park

Guindy Lodge was a wilderness area surrounding the Raj Bhavan in Chennai, later becoming the Guindy Deer Park and eventually the Guindy National Park in 1978. It was historically stocked with spotted deer, possibly predating the 1947 introduction story. The park was noted as overstocked with deer as early as 1900 by British hunter Isabel Savory. Guindy Deer Park is one of the oldest protected areas in Chennai, preserving native flora and fauna within the city limits. It has been a key habitat for the spotted deer population and other wildlife for over a century.

Why in news?

The history of Guindy Park challenges the belief that spotted deer were introduced in 1947, suggesting a much longer presence of the species in Chennai.

Gumti River

The Gumti River originates in the state of India of Tripura and flows into Bangladesh, joining the Meghna River system. It is a trans-boundary river with seasonal variations in water flow, heavily influenced by monsoon rains. The river basin supports agriculture and local livelihoods but is prone to flooding during heavy rains. The Gumti has three key water-level observation sites in Tripura – Amarpur, Sonamura, and Sonamura 2, which monitor flood risks. Its catchment area includes parts of the Dumbur dam reservoir, though the dam is located well upstream and far from the Bangladesh border.

Why in news?

The Gumti River’s heavy rainfall and flooding have been linked to the recent floods in eastern Bangladesh and Tripura, with the Indian Ministry of External Affairs clarifying its role over the Dumbur dam.

Harike Headworks

Harike Headworks is a barrage located at the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas rivers in Punjab. Constructed in 1953, it serves as important irrigation and flood control structure. It diverts water into the Sirhind Feeder and Rajasthan Feeder canals, supporting agriculture in Punjab and Rajasthan. The barrage also forms the Harike Wetland, a Ramsar site known for its biodiversity, especially migratory birds. The structure has a discharge capacity of approximately 27,000 cusecs. It plays a vital role in water management but faces challenges due to sedimentation and fluctuating river flows.

Why in news?

The proposed Malwa canal will originate at the Harike Headworks, making it a key point for diverting water into the new irrigation channel planned by Punjab.

India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway

The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is a 1,360 km road network connecting India’s northeastern states with Southeast Asia. It aims to boost trade, tourism, and regional connectivity between the three countries. The highway passes through Myanmar’s key towns such as Tamu and Mandalay, linking to Thailand’s Mae Sot. The project is part of India’s Act East Policy and seeks to integrate regional economies. It facilitates access to the ASEAN market and promotes socio-economic development in India’s northeast. Construction began in 2002, but progress has been slow due to terrain and political challenges in Myanmar.

Why in news?

Mentioned as a key infrastructure project under India’s Neighbourhood First Policy to enhance regional connectivity and economic integration with Southeast Asia.

Indian Himalayan Range (IHR)

The Indian Himalayan Range (IHR) spans across 11 States and two Union Territories in northern India, covering diverse ecosystems from subtropical forests to alpine meadows. It is home to over 50 million people and provides critical resources like water, biodiversity, and cultural heritage. The range acts as a climatic barrier influencing the monsoon and contains important river systems such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra. The IHR faces unique challenges from urbanisation, climate change, and tourism, which threaten its fragile environment. It is also one of the most seismically active regions globally, prone to earthquakes and landslides.

Why in news?

The IHR is undergoing rapid urban growth of over 40% from 2011-2021, stressing infrastructure and natural resources in Himalayan towns like Srinagar and Guwahati.

Isostasy

Isostasy is the gravitational equilibrium between Earth’s crust and mantle, where the crust floats at an elevation dependent on its thickness and density. When continental material is lost or eroded, the crust becomes lighter and rises higher, similar to a hot-air balloon shedding weight. This vertical movement compensates for changes in surface load, maintaining balance. Isostasy explains why continents can rise by over a kilometre following rifting events and erosion. It is a fundamental concept in geology for understanding landscape evolution, mountain formation, and sedimentary basin development.

Why in news?

Isostasy explains the mechanism of continental uplift observed in Great Escarpments after tectonic rifting and mantle wave activity.

Kalpataru Ridge

The Kalpataru Ridge is an elongated underwater ridge covering 430 square kilometers in the Southwest Indian Ridge region. Discovered in 2012 by the Russian vessel Akademik Nikolay Strakhov during an international survey, it is believed to have provided habitat shelter and food sources for marine life. The ridge is named after the mythological Kalpataru, a wish-fulfilling divine tree in Indian tradition. Its geological formation offers vital information about the bio-geochemical processes and marine ecosystems of the Indian Ocean’s deep-sea environment.

Why in news?

The Kalpataru Ridge was recently officially named by international bodies following its discovery by Indian researchers, denoting India’s contributions to oceanographic exploration.

Krakatoa (Krakatau) Volcano

Krakatoa is a volcanic island group in the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, Indonesia, consisting of four islands – Sertung, Panjang, Rakata, and Anak Krakatau. It lies at the subduction zone where the Indo-Australian plate sinks beneath the Eurasian plate, causing high seismic activity. The 1883 eruption ejected about 20 cubic km of material, producing a sound heard one-third around the world and causing tsunamis killing over 36,000 people. The eruption injected ash and gases into the stratosphere, affecting global climate and creating vivid sunsets worldwide. Anak Krakatau emerged in 1927–28 and remains active .

Why in news?

The 141st anniversary of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption marks its ongoing volcanic activity and its significance in climate science and disaster history.

Kutch Region

The Kutch district is the largest district in India by area, located in the western part of Gujarat. It is known for the Rann of Kutch, a vast salt marsh that floods seasonally, creating a unique ecosystem. The region experiences extreme climatic variations, from scorching heat to cyclonic storms. Kutch is culturally diverse, home to various tribal communities with distinct crafts like embroidery and leatherwork. It has seismic activity, notably the 2001 earthquake. The area is also rich in fossil finds and salt production, contributing to its economic and ecological importance.

Why in news?

Kutch is under threat from a potential cyclonic storm following heavy rains that caused flooding and deaths in Gujarat, prompting warnings from the India Meteorological Department.

Luni River

The Luni River originates from the Nag Pahadi in the Aravali ranges near Ajmer, Rajasthan. It flows approximately 495 km, passing through nine districts including Ajmer, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali, Jalore, and Barmer before emptying into the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. It is also called Maruganga or the “Ganga of Rajasthan.” Despite its length, the river rarely reaches Barmer due to arid conditions and poor water management. The Luni is a seasonal river, flowing mainly during monsoon rains, and its basin is crucial for local agriculture and ecology in western Rajasthan.

Why in news?

The Luni River flowed through Samdari town in Barmer district after three days of continuous rain, an event occurring only for the second time in five years, prompting local celebrations and prayers.

Malacca Strait

The Malacca Strait is a narrow, 64-kilometer-wide waterway between Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore, linking the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea. It is one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes, handling about 23.7 million barrels of oil daily, surpassing the Strait of Hormuz by 13%. The strait is prone to congestion, piracy, and robbery incidents. Its strategic importance makes it a potential flashpoint in geopolitical conflicts; a blockade here could severely restrict China’s oil imports and exports, impacting global trade. The strait’s vulnerability has led to increased naval patrols and security cooperation among regional powers.

Why in news?

The Malacca Strait is brought into light as a critical chokepoint in the South China Sea trade tensions and a possible target for blockades amid rising China-US conflicts.

Monsoon Trough

The Monsoon Trough is an elongated area of low atmospheric pressure extending from the Bay of Bengal westward across India. It forms part of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) during the summer monsoon season. The trough’s position and curvature influence the formation of monsoon depressions and cyclones by providing vorticity, a twisting atmospheric motion essential for storm development. Typically, the trough curves more prominently in the east near the Bay of Bengal, favoring cyclone genesis there. Shifts in its position westward or eastward affect rainfall distribution and cyclone formation locations across the Indian subcontinent.

Why in news?

In August 2024, the monsoon trough shifted westward, causing unusual land-based depressions and influencing cyclone formation near Gujarat.

Mount Edgecumbe

Mount Edgecumbe is a dormant stratovolcano located on Kruzof Island in Alaska, with an elevation of 3,201 feet. It last erupted approximately 800 years ago, with evidence of volcanic activity around 1,150 years ago. The volcano was formed by subduction of the Pacific Plate under the North American Plate. It is notable for its symmetrical cone shape and a large crater lake, called Crater Lake, formed after its last eruption. The volcano is culturally to the indigenous Tlingit people and was historically named L’ux in their language. It has been a popular hiking destination for tourists.

Why in news?

Mount Edgecumbe is showing signs of magma movement and seismic activity, raising concerns about a possible eruption after 800 years of dormancy.

Nankai Trough

The Nankai Trough is an underwater submarine trench located south of Japan, stretching approximately 700 kilometers along the Pacific coast. It is a convergent plate boundary where the Philippine Sea Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate. This region is known for generating megathrust earthquakes, historically causing devastating tsunamis. The trough has produced several major earthquakes over centuries, including the 1946 Nankai earthquake. Its seismic activity is closely monitored due to the potential for a megaquake exceeding magnitude 9. The Nankai Trough is a key focus of earthquake preparedness and scientific research in Japan.

Why in news?

The recent Japanese megaquake advisory was issued due to increased seismic activity near the Nankai Trough, raising fears of a potential magnitude 9 earthquake and prompting disaster preparedness measures.

Pacific Ring of Fire

The Pacific Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped zone around the edges of the Pacific Ocean, characterized by frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It spans about 40,000 kilometers and includes over 450 volcanoes, accounting for about 75% of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes. The Ring of Fire results from the movement and collisions of multiple tectonic plates, including the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, and Philippine Sea plates. It is responsible for about 90% of global earthquakes. Japan lies on this belt, making it one of the most seismically active and earthquake-prone countries in the world.

Why in news?

Japan’s vulnerability to megaquakes, including the recent seismic events and tsunami warnings, is due to its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where tectonic activity is intense and ongoing.

Palar River

The Palar River originates in the Nandi Hills of Karnataka and flows through the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. It spans approximately 348 kilometers. The river is seasonal, with most of its flow during the monsoon months, and often runs dry in summer. It is a vital water source for agriculture and drinking in the region. Historically, the river basin has been prone to droughts and water disputes between states. The Palar’s basin supports several industrial towns, including Ranipet, known for leather industries.

Why in news?

The Palar River is in news due to the reopening of the high-level bridge across it on the Chennai-Bengaluru Highway (NH44) near Ranipet after repair work.

Paleochannel

A paleochannel is an ancient river or stream channel that has been filled or buried by younger sediment. These channels serve as geological archives, preserving evidence of past river courses and environmental conditions. They can be identified through sediment analysis and remote sensing techniques. Paleochannels often influence groundwater flow and are important for understanding historical river dynamics and sediment transport. In deltaic regions like the Ganga delta, paleochannels can be several kilometers wide and provide clues about river avulsions and landscape evolution over thousands of years. They are also for agriculture, often supporting fertile soils.

Why in news?

The discovery of a 2-km-wide paleochannel south of the modern Ganga river helped establish that a major earthquake caused the river’s course to shift about 2,500 years ago.

Perbuatan Volcano

Perbuatan was one of the three original volcanic cones on Krakatoa island before the 1883 eruption, alongside Danan and Rakata. It was considered too small to be dangerous by local and colonial authorities despite showing activity in May 1883 with an 11 km-high ash and vapor column. Perbuatan and Danan both erupted during the main event on August 26–27, 1883, ejecting lava and gases up to 50 km high. The eruption emptied the shared magma chamber, causing the collapse of much of the island and the destruction of Perbuatan itself.

Why in news?

Perbuatan’s underestimated activity preceded the catastrophic 1883 eruption, emphasizing early warning failures in volcanic disaster management.

Phu Khanh Basin

The Phu Khanh Basin is an offshore sedimentary basin off the central coast of Vietnam, part of the South China Sea region. It spans an area of approximately 7,000 square kilometers and is known for deepwater oil and gas exploration. The basin’s complex tectonic history includes rifting and subsidence, creating potential hydrocarbon traps. Despite extensive seismic surveys and exploratory drilling since the early 2000s, commercial discoveries have been limited. The basin is geopolitically sensitive due to overlapping territorial claims, particularly involving China and Vietnam, complicating exploration and development activities.

Why in news?

ONGC Videsh Ltd holds a contract for deepwater exploratory Block 128 in the Phu Khanh Basin, granted a three-year extension despite no commercial discoveries, reflecting India’s strategic interest in the South China Sea.

Pir Panjal Range

The Pir Panjal Range is a group of mountains in the Inner Himalayan region, extending across Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. It is the largest range of the Lower Himalayas with peaks averaging 4,000 meters. The range acts as a climatic barrier, influencing the monsoon patterns in northern India. It contains several important valleys and river systems, including the Parvati River basin. The region is geologically active, prone to landslides and cloud bursts due to its steep slopes and loose sediments. The Pir Panjal Range is also culturally , with historic trade routes and pilgrimage sites like the Amarnath Cave.

Why in news?

A cloud burst in the Pir Panjal Range on July 31 caused flooding and dam failures, leading to widespread destruction in the Malana and Sainj river valleys of Himachal Pradesh.

Ring of Fire

The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped zone in the Pacific Ocean basin characterized by frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It spans over 40,000 kilometers, affecting countries like Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, and the west coasts of North and South America. This seismic belt contains about 75% of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes and experiences approximately 90% of the world’s earthquakes. Its intense tectonic activity is caused by the movement and subduction of several major and minor tectonic plates. The Ring of Fire is responsible for shaping the geology and natural hazards of the Pacific Rim.

Why in news?

The 6.9 magnitude earthquake near Tonga occurred within the seismic Ring of Fire, denoting the region’s ongoing tectonic activity during the Pacific Islands Forum summit.

River Gomati (Tripura)

The River Gomati in Tripura is tributary of the Haora River, flowing through the southern part of the state. It is prone to flooding during heavy monsoon rains due to its narrow riverbed and surrounding topography. The river’s catchment area includes hilly terrain, which contributes to rapid runoff and flash floods. Its banks support several agricultural communities dependent on its water. Flooding of the Gomati often leads to landslides and damage to infrastructure. The river is crucial for irrigation but also poses challenges for flood management in Tripura’s vulnerable districts.

Why in news?

The River Gomati’s water levels remained above danger levels during the August 2024 floods in Tripura, contributing to widespread damage and ongoing disaster management efforts.

Samdari Town

Samdari is a town in the Barmer district of western Rajasthan, situated near the usually dry bed of the Luni River. The town is part of a desert region characterized by arid climate and scarce water resources. Samdari’s local economy largely depends on agriculture, which suffers during droughts. The town is culturally rich, with residents practicing traditional folk songs and dances, especially during rare natural events like the Luni River’s flow. Samdari has seen increasing attention for water conservation efforts due to its proximity to the Luni River and the potential benefits of storing seasonal water flows.

Why in news?

Samdari witnessed the rare flow of the Luni River after heavy rains, leading to community celebrations and calls for better water storage and conservation strategies.

Sand Dikes

Sand dikes are vertical or near-vertical intrusions of sand into overlying sediments, formed when liquefaction occurs during strong earthquakes. Liquefaction causes sediment to behave like a fluid, forcing sand upward through cracks in the soil. Sand dikes preserve evidence of seismic activity in the geologic record and are used to identify past earthquake events. Their composition typically includes fine sands and silty muds. Sand dikes can be meters wide and extend several meters vertically. They are rare geological features that provide direct physical proof of earthquake-induced ground shaking and sediment disturbance.

Why in news?

Two large sand dikes discovered near the Ganga paleochannel provided the first physical evidence linking a major earthquake to the river’s avulsion 2,500 years ago.

Serpentinization

Serpentinization is a geological process where ultramafic mantle rocks, primarily peridotite, chemically react with seawater, producing serpentine minerals, hydrogen gas, and heat. This exothermic reaction alters rock composition and structure, increasing volume and reducing density. It generates hydrothermal fluids rich in hydrogen and methane, which can support chemosynthetic microbial life. Serpentinization is in the formation of oceanic core complexes and influences seafloor spreading zones. It may have played a role in the origin of life by providing energy sources near hydrothermal vents. The process also affects geochemical cycles of carbon and sulfur in marine environments.

Why in news?

Serpentinization occurs at Atlantis Massif, contributing to the hydrothermal vent chemistry and supporting microbial life, relevant to the mantle drilling expedition.

Sirhind Feeder Canal

The Sirhind Feeder Canal, constructed in the 1950s, is an important irrigation canal in Punjab that originates from the Ferozepur Feeder, which itself takes water from Harike Headworks. It extends approximately 136 km and irrigates large tracts of land in Punjab’s Malwa region. The canal faces water shortages during peak agricultural seasons, leading to rotational water supply. More than 300 lift pumps operate along the Sirhind Feeder between Faridkot and Muktsar to supplement irrigation on the canal’s left bank. Its water supply is affected by the limited capacity of the Ferozepur Feeder.

Why in news?

The new Malwa canal is planned to run parallel to the Sirhind Feeder to provide additional water to areas that the Sirhind Feeder cannot adequately serve.

South West Khasi Hills

South West Khasi Hills is a district in Meghalaya, carved out in 2012 from the West Khasi Hills district. It is part of the Khasi Hills region, known for its rich biodiversity and unique living root bridges made from Ficus elastica trees. The district experiences heavy rainfall due to its location in the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion. It is culturally for the Khasi tribe, who practice matrilineal inheritance. The district is less urbanized, with agriculture and forestry as main livelihoods. It recorded the second highest rainfall increase in India during the 2024 monsoon season.

Why in news?

South West Khasi Hills recorded 256% more rainfall than normal during the 2024 monsoon, making it the second highest rainfall increase district in India.

St Martin’s Island

St Martin’s Island, also called “Narikel Zinzira” (Coconut Island), is a 3 sq km coral reef island in the northeastern Bay of Bengal, about 9 km south of Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula and 8 km west of Myanmar’s northwest coast. It is Bangladesh’s only coral island with around 3,800 residents, mostly fishermen. The island’s coral reefs are under threat, with studies predicting it could lose all coral by 2045. Declared an ecologically critical area in 1999, it faces illegal hotel and resort construction. Its geopolitical position near Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal makes it strategically important.

Why in news?

The island is central to allegations that the US pressured Bangladesh to cede control of St Martin’s, linked to the ouster of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in August 2024.

Subtropical Front

The subtropical front is a major oceanographic boundary in the Southern Ocean separating colder, nutrient-rich polar waters from warmer subtropical waters. It acts as a natural barrier limiting the dispersal of marine species between temperate and polar regions. The front’s position fluctuates seasonally and with climate variability. Crossing this front is challenging for many species due to temperature and current differences. However, floating debris and climate change-related warming may facilitate the crossing of non-native species into Antarctic waters, potentially disrupting native ecosystems.

Why in news?

The study identifies the subtropical front as a key geographic and oceanographic barrier affecting the drift of non-native species and debris from northern continents to Antarctica.

Taylor Column

A Taylor column is a geophysical phenomenon occurring when ocean currents flow over a seamount, creating a stagnant, rotating column of water above the underwater mountain. The flow diverges around the seamount, causing fluid to rotate slowly and counterclockwise. This effect can trap objects like icebergs or robotic floats, causing them to remain stationary or spin in place. Taylor columns are not frequently observed due to limited underwater mapping and satellite data. The seamount under A23a is about 100 kilometers across and rises roughly 1,000 meters from the ocean floor.

Why in news?

The iceberg A23a is trapped in a Taylor column vortex above a seamount, causing it to spin rather than drift away, a rare and important oceanographic event studied in 2024.

Tikrikilla

Tikrikilla is a town located in the West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. It is predominantly inhabited by the Garo tribe, one of the major indigenous communities in Meghalaya. The region is characterized by hilly terrain and dense forests. Tikrikilla lies near the border with Assam, making it a strategic location for healthcare surveillance between the two states. The area faces challenges related to healthcare infrastructure and sanitation, which can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases such as vaccine-derived poliovirus. Local governance often coordinates with state health authorities to manage outbreaks and improve public health.

Why in news?

Tikrikilla is in the news due to a confirmed case of vaccine-derived polio in a two-year-old child from this town, triggering health alerts in Meghalaya’s West Garo Hills district.

Tungabhadra Dam Spillway Crest Gate

The 19th crest gate on the spillway of the Tungabhadra Dam is a critical component controlling water discharge. It operates via chain link mechanisms that can fail, causing sudden water release. The dam has a full storage capacity of 105.79 tmcft. The spillway gates’ operation is essential for managing hydraulic pressure and preventing structural damage. The reservoir level is regulated by lifting gates to reduce water to around 40-45 tmcft during maintenance or emergencies. The dam is an inter-state project between Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, crucial for irrigation and power generation.

Why in news?

The 19th crest gate on Tungabhadra Dam’s spillway washed away due to chain link failure, forcing water release and reservoir emptying to reduce pressure, impacting downstream hydroelectric power generation.

Tungabhadra River

The Tungabhadra River is tributary of the Krishna River in southern India, formed by the confluence of the Tunga and Bhadra rivers in Karnataka. It flows through Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, supporting agriculture and hydroelectric power generation. The Tungabhadra Dam, built in 1953, is a major irrigation and water supply project on this river. The river basin is culturally important and historically linked to the Vijayanagara Empire. In 2024, monitoring at Honnali station on the Tungabhadra detected chromium, mercury, and lead above permissible limits, denoting industrial and agricultural pollution challenges.

Why in news?

Water quality monitoring at Honnali on the Tungabhadra River revealed elevated levels of chromium, mercury, and lead in the August 2024 CWC report on toxic metals in Indian rivers.

Viscosity of Earth’s mantle beneath Antarctica

The mantle beneath Antarctica’s ice sheet exhibits variable viscosity, meaning it behaves like a thick fluid in some regions. This squishiness allows the Earth’s crust to deform and rebound more rapidly than previously thought. Seismic data reveal high mantle viscosity contrasts between East and West Antarctica, influencing how quickly land uplift occurs. The mantle’s physical state directly affects ice sheet stability and post-glacial uplift rates. This mantle behavior is crucial for understanding how the solid Earth responds to ice mass loss and how it will affect future sea-level changes globally.

Why in news?

New seismic data show the Antarctic mantle’s unexpected squishiness, accelerating land uplift and altering sea-level rise forecasts.

Vythiri Taluk

Vythiri Taluk is an administrative division in the Wayanad district of Kerala. It is known for its hilly terrain and dense forests, part of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot. The region experiences heavy monsoon rainfall, making it prone to landslides. Agriculture, especially tea, coffee, and spices, forms the backbone of its economy. Vythiri is also a popular tourist destination due to its natural beauty, waterfalls, and wildlife sanctuaries. The taluk has a mix of tribal and non-tribal populations, with tribal communities such as Paniyas and Kurichiyas residing in the area. Infrastructure development is challenging due to the rugged landscape.

Why in news?

Vythiri Taluk was the site of a catastrophic landslide on July 30, 2024, causing severe destruction and prompting demands to declare the event a national disaster.

Yatalakunta and Zloorupadu tunnels

The Yatalakunta and Zloorupadu tunnels are key infrastructural components of the Sita Rama Lift Irrigation Project. These tunnels facilitate the conveyance of Godavari water through difficult terrain to the Palair region, ensuring uninterrupted water flow. Their construction requires coordination with railway authorities to avoid delays at railway crossings and clearance from the Supreme Court. The tunnels are essential to connecting the main canal system with remote command areas, stabilizing irrigation and expanding cultivable land. Their timely completion is critical for meeting the project’s August 2026 irrigation targets.

Why in news?

The Irrigation Minister emphasized accelerating the construction of these tunnels to ensure smooth water delivery and avoid project delays.

Zaranj-Delaram Highway

The Zaranj-Delaram highway is a 217-kilometer road constructed by India in Afghanistan to connect the southwestern city of Zaranj near the Iranian border to Delaram in Nimroz province. It facilitates trade and military logistics, providing Afghanistan with access to the Iranian port of Chabahar. The highway was completed in 2009 and is considered a strategic infrastructure project aimed at boosting regional connectivity and economic development. It has helped reduce travel time between the two cities from 12-14 hours to 2-3 hours. The project was built by Indian companies under the aegis of Government of India aid.

Why in news?

The highway is part of India’s broader infrastructure assistance to Afghanistan, where Kalpataru Projects International has been actively involved in construction and development projects.

Environment & Ecology

20% Ethanol Blending Target

The 20% ethanol blending target refers to the Government of India’s goal to blend 20% ethanol with petrol by 2025-26, advancing from the earlier 2030 deadline. This target aims to reduce fossil fuel dependence, lower carbon emissions, and support the agricultural sector by increasing ethanol demand. As of July 2024, ethanol blending reached 13.3%, up from 12.6% the previous year. Achieving this target requires expanding ethanol production capacity, diversifying feedstocks, and revising ethanol prices to incentivize producers. This initiative aligns with India’s broader green energy commitments and energy security strategies.

Why in news?

India is accelerating its ethanol blending program, aiming to reach 20% by 2025-26, ahead of schedule, with price revisions and feedstock diversification under consideration.

30 by 30 Vision

The 30 by 30 vision is a global biodiversity conservation target aiming to protect 30% of Earth’s land and oceans by 2030. It was endorsed at the Montreal Biodiversity COP (Conference of the Parties) under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. The goal seeks to curb biodiversity loss, combat climate change, and preserve ecosystem services. Countries commit to expanding protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, and integrating biodiversity considerations into policies. India has aligned its national forest and biodiversity policies with this vision, aiming to increase green cover and safeguard natural habitats while balancing developmental needs.

Why in news?

The Indian environment minister mentioned the government’s commitment to the 30 by 30 vision during a parliamentary reply on forest cover and afforestation efforts.

Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE)

Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) is a metric used to express the combined strength, duration, and frequency of tropical cyclones during a season. It is calculated by summing the squares of the estimated maximum sustained wind speeds of every active tropical storm at six-hour intervals. ACE provides a more comprehensive measure of tropical cyclone activity than simply counting storms or hurricanes. It helps meteorologists compare the overall energy output of different hurricane seasons and assess potential impacts on affected regions. ACE is widely used in climate research to analyze trends in tropical cyclone intensity and frequency over time.

Why in news?

Despite below-average tropical cyclone counts in 2023, the global ACE was above average, reflecting more intense and longer-lasting storms, including over seven Category 5 cyclones.

Aedes aegypti Mosquito

Aedes aegypti is a daytime-biting mosquito species known for transmitting viruses such as Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. It breeds in stagnant water found in artificial containers like tires, flower pots, and water storage tanks. The mosquito thrives in tropical and subtropical urban environments. Female mosquitoes feed primarily on human blood, essential for egg production. Aedes aegypti has distinctive white markings on its legs and a lyre-shaped pattern on its thorax. Control measures include eliminating breeding sites, insecticide fogging, and use of larvicides. It is a highly efficient vector due to its close association with human habitats.

Why in news?

Pune Municipal Corporation intensified mosquito control measures targeting Aedes aegypti to curb the spread of Zika virus amid rising infection cases.

Agromet (Agricultural Meteorology Division of IMD Pune)

Agromet is a specialized division of the India Meteorological Department (IMD) based in Pune that issues weather forecasts specifically aimed at minimizing the impact of adverse weather on agriculture. It provides district-level rainfall predictions and other meteorological data critical for crop management. Agromet forecasts categorize rainfall amounts to guide farmers and policymakers; for example, 15 mm of rainfall is considered non-alarming. These forecasts help in planning irrigation, pest control, and harvesting schedules. The division integrates meteorological data with agricultural needs, making it a vital link between weather science and farming practices in India.

Why in news?

Agromet issued a forecast for Wayanad district predicting 15 mm rainfall on July 30, 2024, the day landslides occurred, denoting discrepancies in early warning systems before the Wayanad tragedy.

Ahwa, Dang Forests

Ahwa is a town in the Dang district of Gujarat, situated within the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot. The Dang forests are characterized by dense tropical forests and rich biodiversity, including many endemic species. These forests serve as a transition zone for species typically found in southern India, such as Proszynskia diatreta. The region’s ecology supports diverse flora and fauna, with conservation efforts ongoing to protect its unique habitat. Ahwa is also culturally for its tribal communities and is a gateway for ecological research in the western part of the Ghats.

Why in news?

Ahwa’s Dang forests are the location where the adult Proszynskia diatreta spider was first recorded outside Tamil Nadu, denoting the area’s ecological importance.

Air Quality Life Index (AQLI)

The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) is a research tool developed by the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC) that quantifies the impact of particulate air pollution (PM2.5) on life expectancy. It translates pollution exposure into tangible life expectancy reductions or gains if standards are met. The 2024 report shows global life expectancy is reduced by almost two years due to PM2.5. The AQLI is unique in linking pollution data directly to health outcomes and is used to inform policy decisions worldwide. It marks disparities in pollution exposure and its health impacts across regions and countries.

Why in news?

The AQLI 2024 report was published recently, revealing air pollution’s impact on global life expectancy and the benefits of meeting WHO PM2.5 guidelines.

Amarpur Water Level Observation Station

The Amarpur station is a water level observation site located along the Gumti River in Tripura, near the India-Bangladesh border. It is a key monitoring point within a bilateral protocol for the real-time transmission of flood and water level data to Bangladesh. The station helps in early flood warning and water management by providing timely information on river flow trends. It is one of three major observation sites on the Gumti River, alongside Sonamura and Sonamura 2, facilitating cross-border cooperation to reduce flood risks and improve disaster preparedness in downstream Bangladesh districts.

Why in news?

Amarpur station is brought into light due to its role in transmitting flood data to Bangladesh during recent heavy rainfall and flooding on the Gumti River basin.

Angan Jyoti Project

The Angan Jyoti Project is an initiative aimed at transforming anganwadis (rural child care centers in India) into zero-emission institutions. It involves installing solar power generation facilities and providing energy-efficient cooking utensils like induction cookers. This project reduces reliance on conventional fuels and electricity, promoting cleaner energy use in early childhood education centers. It is part of broader efforts in Kerala’s island panchayats to lower carbon footprints and improve environmental sustainability, integrating renewable energy solutions within community welfare programs.

Why in news?

The Angan Jyoti Project is brought into light as part of the Carbon Neutral Goshree Campaign’s efforts to make anganwadis in Kochi’s island panchayats zero-emission institutions by adopting solar power and energy-saving appliances.

Archaea

Archaea are a distinct group of single-celled prokaryotes, genetically different from bacteria, often found in extreme environments like hot springs, salt lakes, and deep-sea vents. They possess unique membrane lipids and metabolic pathways, including methane production. Archaea contribute to global biogeochemical cycles, including carbon and nitrogen cycles. They were only recognized as a separate domain of life in the 1970s. Marine archaea are abundant in ocean waters and sediments, playing critical roles in nutrient recycling. Their adaptability allows them to survive in varied and changing environments, influencing marine ecosystem dynamics.

Why in news?

Archaea’s role in marine ecosystems is emphasized as climate change may increase their abundance, affecting ocean nutrient cycles and carbon emissions.

Arctic Poppy (Papaver radicatum)

The Arctic poppy is a perennial flowering plant native to Arctic and alpine regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It has yellow or white flowers and grows close to the ground to resist cold winds. Arctic poppies have a unique heliotropic behavior, where their flowers track the sun to maximize heat absorption and aid pollination. They can survive extreme cold, drought, and nutrient-poor soils. Their seeds are small and can remain dormant for years until conditions improve. The plant plays an important role in tundra ecosystems by providing nectar for pollinators during the short growing season.

Why in news?

A preserved Arctic poppy seed was found in Greenland ice core sediments, confirming the presence of tundra vegetation beneath the ice sheet center in the geological past.

Artificial Reefs

Artificial reefs are man-made underwater structures placed on the seabed to mimic natural reefs, providing habitat for marine life. They enhance fish breeding, biodiversity, and protect coastal areas by reducing wave energy. Materials used include concrete, steel, and specially designed reef modules. These reefs encourage aggregation of invertebrates and larvae, forming colonies that support fish populations. Artificial reefs have been deployed globally in countries like Japan, the U.S., France, and Italy. In India, CMFRI has been experimenting with them for over 20 years, successfully increasing fish stock along coasts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat.

Why in news?

CMFRI is installing 14 artificial reefs along Puducherry’s coast under a government-funded project to improve fish availability and fishermen’s income.

Ashtamudi Lake

Ashtamudi Lake is a Ramsar wetland located in the Kollam district of Kerala. It covers an area of approximately 61 square kilometers and is known for its unique wetland ecosystem with extensive mangrove forests. The lake supports a rich biodiversity including fish, birds, and aquatic plants. It is a major source of inland fisheries and supports local livelihoods through fishing and tourism. The lake’s name means “eight braids,” referring to its eight arms or channels. It has been identified as a hotspot for microplastic pollution, affecting its aquatic life and water quality.

Why in news?

A new study revealed the extent of microplastic pollution in Ashtamudi Lake, denoting environmental concerns related to plastic contamination in aquatic ecosystems.

Atlantic Nina

The Atlantic Nina is a climate phenomenon occurring in the Atlantic Ocean, characterized by cooler sea surface temperatures along the equator. It typically peaks in July or August and lasts for a shorter duration than the Pacific La Nina. Atlantic Nina has smaller amplitude and more localized impacts. It tends to have opposite effects to Atlantic Nino, influencing rainfall patterns in regions like Africa’s Sahel and the Gulf of Guinea countries. Atlantic Nina can weaken the summer winds that drive upwelling in the eastern Pacific, partially counteracting La Nina effects. It is much less powerful than La Nina and rarer to observe simultaneously with it.

Why in news?

In August 2024, Atlantic Nina was developing simultaneously with Pacific La Nina, a rare occurrence affecting Atlantic hurricane predictions and ocean temperatures.

Atmospheric Rivers (AR)

Atmospheric rivers are narrow corridors of concentrated water vapor in the atmosphere, often over 2,000 km long and less than 1,000 km wide. They transport moisture from tropical oceans to higher latitudes, delivering intense rainfall when they make landfall. ARs can carry moisture volumes exceeding that of major rivers and influence local weather by increasing humidity, wind speeds, and precipitation. In India, 596 major AR events were recorded from 1950-2020, mostly during June-September. About 70% of major floods in India over 35 years were linked to ARs. Their intensity and frequency have increased due to warming oceans and climate change.

Why in news?

ARs contributed to the Wayanad landslide and floods in Kerala in 2024, with July recording the highest number of AR days, intensifying monsoon rainfall and leading to severe flooding.

Balancing Reservoir

A balancing reservoir is an auxiliary reservoir built to manage excess water storage and regulate supply from a main dam reservoir. It helps address issues like sediment accumulation that reduce the main reservoir’s capacity. In the case of the Tungabhadra dam, accumulated silt has filled around 30% of the original reservoir capacity, prompting proposals to build a balancing reservoir to improve water management and storage efficiency. Balancing reservoirs also help mitigate flood risks and maintain steady irrigation water supply during variable inflow periods.

Why in news?

The Karnataka state government proposed constructing a balancing reservoir to counteract the reduced capacity of the Tungabhadra reservoir caused by silt accumulation.

Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve

Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, located in Madhya Pradesh, spans over 1,600 square kilometers and is known for its high density of Bengal tigers. It was declared a tiger reserve in 1993 under Project Tiger. The reserve contains the Bandhavgarh Fort, a historic fortress dating back to the 10th century. It hosts a diverse range of flora and fauna besides tigers, including leopards, deer, and over 250 bird species. The reserve has faced challenges such as poaching and habitat fragmentation. Between 2021 and 2023, 34 tiger deaths were reported here, triggering investigations into lapses in wildlife protection and law enforcement.

Why in news?

A Special Investigation Team flagged lapses in investigations of 43 tiger deaths in Bandhavgarh and Shahdol, denoting issues like insufficient evidence collection and poor enforcement of anti-poaching laws.

Bent-toed Geckos (Genus Cyrtodactylus)

Bent-toed geckos belong to the genus Cyrtodactylus, comprising about 346 species distributed across Peninsular India, Sri Lanka, the Himalayan foothills, Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Solomon Islands. These geckos are primarily nocturnal and inhabit diverse habitats such as forest streams, rocks, and vegetation. They exhibit a bent-toed morphology that distinguishes them from other gecko species. The genus is known for high species diversity and endemism, especially in Northeast India, where around 30 species are endemic. Their discovery often occurs in protected areas like tiger reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, denoting biodiversity hotspots.

Why in news?

Six new bent-toed gecko species of the genus Cyrtodactylus were recently described from Northeast India, emphasizing the region’s rich and underexplored biodiversity.

Beryllium-10 Nuclide Dating

Beryllium-10 (10Be) is a rare radioactive isotope formed when cosmic rays strike oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere. It accumulates in exposed rock surfaces, making it useful for dating geological events such as glacier retreat or landslides. 10Be has a half-life of approximately 1.39 million years, allowing scientists to date surfaces exposed over long periods. This method helps determine how long rocks have been exposed to the atmosphere, providing vital information about past climate changes and geological processes. It is especially valuable in studying glacial histories in regions like the Andes.

Why in news?

Researchers used beryllium-10 measurements to date bedrock exposed by retreating Andes glaciers, revealing unprecedented glacier shrinkage not seen for over 115,000 years.

Bhagirathi Char Dham Project

The Bhagirathi Char Dham project is a major infrastructure initiative in Uttarakhand aimed at improving connectivity to the four sacred Hindu pilgrimage sites – Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath. It involves road widening and tunnel construction to reduce travel time and enhance safety. The project has raised environmental concerns due to potential deforestation, landslides, and disruption of fragile Himalayan ecosystems. It is part of the larger Char Dham Pariyojana, supported by the Government of India to boost tourism and regional development. Environmental clearances require mitigation measures to protect wildlife corridors and soil stability.

Why in news?

Congress MP Ranjeet Ranjan raised concerns about forest loss linked to the Bhagirathi Char Dham project during parliamentary discussions on forest cover.

Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (BESZ)

The Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (BESZ) is a designated ecological buffer area surrounding the Bhagirathi river basin in Uttarakhand. It aims to regulate activities to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem, including forests, wildlife, and riverine habitats. The zone restricts industrial development, deforestation, and large-scale construction to minimize environmental degradation. The BESZ covers several thousand hectares, including critical habitats for endangered species such as the Himalayan musk deer. It plays important role in maintaining the hydrological balance and preventing soil erosion. Clearing 17.5 hectares of forest in this zone for road widening threatens biodiversity and ecological stability.

Why in news?

The Gangotri-Dharasu stretch of the Char Dham highway project falls within the BESZ, and environmentalists oppose road widening here due to potential forest clearance and ecological damage without an environmental impact assessment.

Bhagirathi River

The Bhagirathi River is a major tributary of the Ganga River, originating from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It is considered the source stream of the Ganga and holds religious significance in Hinduism. The Bhagirathi flows through rugged Himalayan terrain before joining the Alaknanda River at Devprayag, where the combined flow is officially named the Ganga. It supports diverse ecosystems and local communities but faces pollution threats from urbanization and industrial activities. In 2024, heavy metals like arsenic, lead, and iron were detected above safe limits at Uttarkashi monitoring station on the Bhagirathi, indicating environmental stress.

Why in news?

The Bhagirathi river’s water quality monitoring station at Uttarkashi recorded unsafe levels of arsenic, lead, and iron in the recent CWC heavy metals contamination report.

Big Five Carnivore Protection Project

The Big Five Carnivore Protection Project is a coalition of organizations in Sweden focused on the conservation and protection of the country’s five major carnivores – brown bear, wolf, lynx, wolverine, and golden eagle. It provides scientific data, public education, and policy advocacy to promote coexistence between humans and large carnivores. The project monitors population trends and threats, including poaching and hunting practices. It emphasizes the ecological role of carnivores as top predators and the impact of population declines on ecosystems. The project is influential in shaping conservation strategies and raising awareness about carnivore protection in Scandinavia.

Why in news?

The Big Five Carnivore Protection Project issued statements opposing Sweden’s 2024 brown bear hunting quota, denoting risks to the population and ecosystem stability.

Bio-fortified Crop Varieties

Bio-fortified crops are genetically enhanced to increase their nutritional value, often enriched with vitamins and minerals like iron, zinc, and vitamin A. These crops help combat malnutrition, especially in developing countries. Examples include iron-rich pearl millet and vitamin A-rich sweet potatoes. Bio-fortification can be achieved through conventional breeding or modern biotechnology. It is a sustainable method to improve public health as it does not require dietary changes or supplementation. These crops are also adapted to be climate-resilient, helping farmers maintain productivity under stress conditions like drought or poor soil.

Why in news?

PM Modi released 109 new varieties of crops, including bio-fortified types, to improve nutrition and climate resilience in Indian agriculture.

Biofortification

Biofortification is the process of increasing the nutritional value of food crops through conventional plant breeding or genetic modification. It enhances micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and vitamin A in edible parts of plants. This method provides nutrients in their natural form, improving absorption and reducing malnutrition sustainably. Biofortified crops maintain high yield levels comparable to traditional varieties, ensuring no income loss for farmers. The approach is cost-effective since it does not require additional supplementation or fortification during food processing. Biofortification is promoted by ICAR and global organizations to combat hidden hunger in developing countries.

Why in news?

Among the 109 new crop varieties released by PM Modi, many were biofortified to improve nutrition while being climate-resilient and high-yielding.

Biogas Slurry

Biogas slurry is the nutrient-rich by-product left after organic materials are digested anaerobically to produce biogas. It contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making it an effective natural fertilizer. Using biogas slurry reduces reliance on chemical fertilizers and improves soil health. The slurry also helps in waste management by recycling organic waste into useful products. At Hekima Primary School in Tanzania, biogas slurry fertilizes vegetables grown in vertical gardens, supporting sustainable agriculture and reducing environmental pollution from synthetic chemicals.

Why in news?

Hekima Primary School uses biogas slurry to fertilize crops, reducing chemical fertilizer use and supporting climate-smart agriculture in Tanzanian public schools.

Bordeaux Mixture

Bordeaux mixture is a fungicide composed of copper sulfate and hydrated lime, used since the late 19th century to control fungal diseases in plants. It works by releasing copper ions that disrupt fungal enzyme systems. The mixture’s effectiveness depends on fresh preparation and maintaining a neutral pH (~7) to prevent plant damage and ensure copper availability. It is widely used in tropical crops like arecanut, grapes, and citrus. Adding a sticker-cum-spreader improves adherence and coverage. Overuse can cause copper accumulation in soil, leading to toxicity, so it must be applied judiciously.

Why in news?

Recommended by CPCRI in August 2024 for controlling kole roga in arecanut plantations, with specific preparation and application guidelines to maximize effectiveness.

Boreal Summer Intra-seasonal Oscillation (BSISO)

The Boreal Summer Intra-seasonal Oscillation (BSISO) is a climate pattern influencing weather variability in the tropical Indian and Western Pacific Oceans during boreal summer months (June to September). It consists of northward and eastward propagating convective anomalies with a typical cycle of 30-60 days. BSISO affects the distribution and intensity of monsoon rainfall, often triggering bursts and breaks in monsoon activity. It modulates tropical cyclones and low-pressure systems by transferring heat and moisture across ocean basins. BSISO’s phases impact agricultural productivity and water resources in South and Southeast Asia through altered rainfall patterns.

Why in news?

BSISO contributed to the formation and intensification of the deep depression over Gujarat, which is expected to become Cyclone Asna in late August 2024.

Boreholes in Agriculture

Boreholes are deep, narrow wells drilled into the ground to access underground water, often used for irrigation in agriculture. Unlike shallow wells, boreholes reach aquifers, tapping more reliable water sources. Their depth can range from tens to hundreds of meters. Boreholes require pumps or generators to bring water to the surface. Overuse can lead to groundwater depletion and increased salinity, harming crops. In drought-prone areas, boreholes become vital but unsustainable if groundwater recharge is insufficient. Monitoring borehole water quality and quantity is essential to prevent long-term damage to soil and crop yields.

Why in news?

Dimitris Papadakis’s olive grove relies on boreholes that have nearly dried up due to prolonged drought, forcing reliance on water tankers for irrigation.

Brazzaville Declaration on Non-Communicable Diseases

The Brazzaville Declaration on Non-Communicable Diseases was adopted in 2011 at the WHO Regional Committee for Africa meeting in Brazzaville, Republic of Congo. It set a regional commitment to prioritize prevention and control of NCDs, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and chronic respiratory diseases. The declaration called for multisectoral collaboration, political commitment, and resource mobilization to tackle NCDs. Despite its adoption, many African countries have struggled to implement the declaration’s goals due to competing health priorities and limited funding. The declaration remains a foundational policy guiding NCD strategies in Africa.

Why in news?

The 2024 WHO regional framework for diabetes builds on the Brazzaville Declaration, aiming to strengthen political commitment and funding for NCDs in Africa.

Bt Brinjal

Bt Brinjal is a genetically modified eggplant developed to resist the fruit and shoot borer pest. It was the first GM food crop to be approved in India but faced widespread protests and an indefinite moratorium was imposed in 2010. The technology was developed using a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to produce insecticidal proteins. Despite regulatory approval, Bt Brinjal has not been commercially cultivated in India due to concerns over biosafety and socio-economic impacts. The moratorium followed extensive public hearings, including protests by farmers and consumer groups demanding further studies and transparency in risk assessment.

Why in news?

The text references past protests against Bt Brinjal, denoting ongoing farmer opposition to GM crops and demands for comprehensive consultations in formulating national GM crop policy.

Bt Cotton (Bollgard II)

Bt cotton is a genetically modified cotton variety that produces insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to combat pests like the American bollworm. Bollgard II, introduced in India in 2002, contains two Bt genes for broader pest resistance. Despite initial success, Bollgard II cotton has become vulnerable to pests like the pink bollworm due to evolving resistance. It remains a major cotton seed type in India, but its efficacy is challenged by new pest pressures and climate change. The technology reduced pesticide use initially but now requires integrated pest management approaches.

Why in news?

The decline in Bt cotton cultivation in 2024 is linked to pest resistance, particularly from pink bollworm outbreaks, causing farmers to shift to alternative crops.

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) was established in 2002 under the Ministry of Power, to promote energy efficiency and conservation. It implements energy-saving programs and standards, including the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. BEE develops labeling for appliances and promotes energy-efficient technologies across sectors. It also collects and publishes data on energy consumption and efficiency. The agency has launched initiatives like the Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme and the National Electric Mobility Mission. BEE collaborates with international organizations to meet India’s climate goals and supports states in adopting sustainable energy policies.

Why in news?

BEE provided data showing Karnataka has the highest number of public EV charging stations in India, denoting the state’s progress in electric vehicle infrastructure.

Call Phenology

Call phenology refers to the timing and pattern of vocalizations in amphibians, especially during breeding seasons. For the Malabar Tree Toad, call phenology data was used to divide populations into northern and southern groups. This method helps track breeding activity and population distribution changes over time. It provides critical vital information about how climate and environmental factors influence amphibian reproductive behavior. Call phenology is often used in citizen science to monitor amphibian populations and assess ecological impacts without needing physical capture or invasive methods.

Why in news?

Researchers used call phenology to analyze citizen science data, helping predict the future distribution and breeding patterns of the Malabar Tree Toad under climate change scenarios.

Cellulose Microbeads

Cellulose microbeads are microscopic particles derived from natural cellulose, a plant-based polymer. They serve as exfoliants and delivery agents in cosmetics and personal care products. Unlike synthetic plastic microbeads, cellulose microbeads are considered biodegradable under certain conditions, but their biodegradability in natural environments remains unclear. They often appear white but can be colored for aesthetic purposes. Cellulose microbeads can vary in size from 1 to 1000 micrometres. Their irregular shapes increase surface area, potentially enhancing pollutant adsorption. These microbeads are gaining popularity as alternatives to polyethylene beads in eco-friendly products.

Why in news?

About 23.33% of the products tested contained cellulose microbeads, with uncertain biodegradability, raising questions about their environmental safety.

Chokramudi Hills

Chokramudi Hills are part of the Western Ghats in Kerala, known for their rich biodiversity and steep slopes. The hills are geologically fragile, composed mainly of laterite and fragile rock formations, making them prone to landslides. They support various endemic species of flora and fauna. The region experiences heavy monsoon rains, which exacerbate soil erosion and slope instability. Historically, the area has seen limited large-scale human intervention due to its ecological sensitivity. The hills are also a source of several small streams feeding downstream agricultural and tribal settlements. Recent construction and mining activities have increased landslide risks in this fragile ecosystem.

Why in news?

Chokramudi Hills are in the news due to ongoing large-scale construction and mining activities causing landslip threats in the downstream Bison Valley panchayat area.

Chooralmala-Mundakkai Region

The Chooralmala-Mundakkai region is located in the Meppadi Panchayat of Wayanad district, Kerala, within the Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1 (ESZ1) as defined by the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (Gadgil Committee) in 2011. This zone is recognized for its unique geography and dense forest cover, warranting strict environmental protection. The area primarily houses tea plantation workers and small-scale farmers. It experienced a catastrophic landslide in August 2024, destroying nearly all human settlements in Mundakkai and severely damaging Chooralmala. The region’s vulnerability stems from unplanned development and heavy rainfall exacerbated by climate change.

Why in news?

The Chooralmala-Mundakkai region was the epicenter of Kerala’s deadliest landslide in August 2024, resulting in over 300 deaths and massive destruction of homes and local economy.

Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant

The Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant, located near the Ukraine-Belarus border, was the site of the world’s worst nuclear disaster in April 1986. Reactor No. 4 exploded, releasing massive radioactive contamination across Europe. The plant was officially decommissioned in 2000. The surrounding area remains a restricted exclusion zone due to lingering radiation. It is managed by the State Agency of Ukraine on Exclusion Zone Management. Military activity near Chornobyl is highly sensitive due to the risk of disturbing radioactive materials. The disaster’s long-term environmental and health impacts continue to affect Ukraine and Belarus.

Why in news?

Ukraine has expressed concern over Belarusian military exercises near the Chornobyl plant, citing threats to national security and the risk of exacerbating radioactive contamination.

Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus (cVDPV)

Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus (cVDPV) occurs when the weakened virus in oral polio vaccines mutates and regains neurovirulence, spreading in populations with low immunization coverage. cVDPV can cause outbreaks of paralytic polio similar to wild poliovirus. It is most commonly associated with type 2 poliovirus strains. The risk of cVDPV outbreaks increases when oral vaccine coverage drops below 80-85%. cVDPV has been detected in over 30 countries since 2000, often in regions with poor sanitation and disrupted health services. It poses a major challenge to global polio eradication efforts.

Why in news?

The Gaza polio outbreak involves a vaccine-derived strain, prompting use of nOPV2 and intensified vaccination campaigns to stop transmission.

Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)

The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a vast deep-sea region in the Pacific Ocean between Hawaii and Mexico, covering approximately 4.5 million square kilometers. It lies at depths between 4,000 and 6,000 meters and contains some of the world’s richest deposits of polymetallic manganese nodules, which include manganese, cobalt, copper, and nickel. These nodules form over millions of years from sediment accumulation. The CCZ is a major target for commercial deep-sea mining. It hosts an extremely fragile ecosystem with over 5,000 species adapted to high pressure, low food, and no sunlight environments.

Why in news?

Mining companies plan to begin commercial extraction of valuable manganese nodules from the CCZ as early as 2026, pending regulatory approval.

Clean Plant Centers (CPCs)

Clean Plant Centers are specialized facilities focused on producing virus-free, high-quality planting material for vegetative propagation of fruit crops. These centers conduct disease diagnostics and therapeutics, create mother plants, and quarantine all domestic and imported planting materials to prevent the spread of plant pathogens. CPCs ensure that only healthy plants are distributed to nurseries and farmers, reducing crop losses due to diseases. The concept is modeled after similar programs in the US, Israel, and the Netherlands. CPCs also help shorten quarantine periods for imported plants from two years to six months, accelerating access to exotic and high-demand plants.

Why in news?

CPCs are part of India’s Clean Plant Programme (CPP), launched to improve fruit crop quality and yield by providing virus-free planting materials, supported by funding from the Ministry of Agriculture and the Asian Development Bank.

Climate Resilient Observing Systems Promotion Council (CROPC)

The Climate Resilient Observing Systems Promotion Council (CROPC) is an Indian organization focused on enhancing climate resilience through advanced observation and data collection systems. It collaborates with government meteorological departments and research institutions to monitor extreme weather events such as lightning, cyclones, and floods. CROPC publishes annual reports like the Annual Lightning Report, which provides detailed data on lightning frequency and distribution across India. It supports climate adaptation strategies by identifying vulnerable regions and promoting early warning systems. CROPC’s work aids policymakers in disaster risk reduction and climate change mitigation efforts, particularly in high-risk areas like Odisha and eastern India.

Why in news?

Odisha’s lightning strike data and risk assessment were referenced from CROPC’s 2023-2024 Annual Lightning Report in the context of rising lightning fatalities and preventive measures.

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) is a set of environmental laws in India aimed at protecting coastal ecosystems by regulating human activities near the shoreline. Introduced in 1991, CRZ classifies coastal areas into different categories based on ecological sensitivity and development potential. It restricts construction and industrial activity within a defined distance from the high tide line, typically 500 meters to 1 kilometer. The CRZ also mandates the preservation of natural habitats, mangroves, and beaches. Violations can lead to legal penalties and demolition of unauthorized structures. The CRZ is periodically revised to balance development and environmental protection.

Why in news?

The article discusses CRZ in the context of advocating retreat from vulnerable coastal areas in Karnataka to mitigate erosion and submergence risks, aligning with CRZ’s core principles.

Compensatory Afforestation

Compensatory afforestation is the process of planting trees on non-forest land to compensate for forest land diverted to non-forest uses. It is mandated by the Indian Forest Conservation Act, 1980, ensuring ecological balance. Funds collected under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) are used for this purpose. The afforestation efforts include planting native species and restoring degraded forest areas. This mechanism aims to offset deforestation caused by infrastructure, mining, or industrial projects. However, compensatory afforestation often faces criticism for delays and inadequate ecological equivalence to the lost forest land.

Why in news?

The government reported acquiring land under compensatory afforestation to offset the loss of 1,733 sq km forest area due to development activities over the last decade.

Condition Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP)

The Condition Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) is a systematic framework used to evaluate the health and sustainability of river basins. It involves detailed studies of water quality, biodiversity, land use, and human activities affecting the river ecosystem. CAMP integrates scientific data to identify degradation causes and proposes actionable strategies for conservation and rejuvenation. This plan supports policy formulation, infrastructure planning, and community engagement to maintain ecological balance. CAMP is often mandated by environmental ministries to ensure sustainable water resource management and to mitigate adverse impacts from development projects like dams and urbanization.

Why in news?

CAMP is being conducted for the Narmada river basin by IIT Gandhinagar and IIT Indore under the Ministry of Jalshakti to assess and rejuvenate the river ecosystem.

Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act

The Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act is a Kerala state legislation enacted to protect paddy fields and wetlands from conversion and destruction. It prohibits reclamation, filling, or alteration of these ecologically sensitive areas without government approval. The Act aims to preserve agricultural land and maintain biodiversity, water retention, and flood control functions of wetlands. Violations can lead to legal action, including demolition of unauthorized constructions and restoration mandates. The Act is often invoked in disputes involving land use changes in rural Kerala, especially amid increasing developmental pressures and environmental degradation.

Why in news?

The Act is cited in legal actions against illegal dumping and filling of wetlands in Kunhimangalam, leading to court-ordered restoration and removal of debris.

CRZ-1A and CRZ-1B Zones

CRZ-1A and CRZ-1B are classifications under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules in India, designed to regulate activities along the coastline. CRZ-1A areas are ecologically sensitive zones such as mangroves and coral reefs where no development is permitted. CRZ-1B zones are other ecologically sensitive areas where only limited activities are allowed. These zones aim to protect coastal ecosystems from harmful construction and pollution. The classification under the Coastal Zone Management Plan determines permissible land use and conservation priorities. CRZ regulations are enforced by state coastal authorities and central government agencies.

Why in news?

The wetlands in Kunhimangalam fall under CRZ-1A and CRZ-1B zones, making them protected No Development Zones, which was central to the legal battle against illegal filling.

CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR)

CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, located in Lucknow, is a premier research institute under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). It focuses on toxicological research related to environmental pollutants, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. The institute develops methods to assess the impact of toxins on human health and ecosystems. CSIR-IITR has contributed to understanding the toxic effects of microplastics and other emerging contaminants. It collaborates extensively with national and international agencies to develop validated testing protocols and safety standards. The institute was established in 1965 and is recognized for its work in environmental and occupational health toxicology.

Why in news?

CSIR-IITR is collaborating with FSSAI on a project to develop validated methodologies for detecting micro- and nano-plastics in food products in India.

Diclofenac and Its Impact on Vultures

Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) widely used in veterinary medicine to treat livestock pain and inflammation. It became infamous for causing catastrophic declines in vulture populations across South Asia after vultures ingested the drug by feeding on treated animal carcasses. Diclofenac causes kidney failure in vultures, leading to death within days. Despite bans on veterinary use in several countries, illegal use persists, continuing to threaten vulture survival. Research shows vultures are especially sensitive to diclofenac compared to other birds. Alternatives like meloxicam have been promoted as safer substitutes for veterinary use.

Why in news?

Diclofenac is brought into light as a primary cause of the decline in Indian vulture populations, prompting conservation efforts like Vulture Count 2024 to monitor and protect these birds.

Direct Seeded Rice (DSR)

Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) is a cultivation method where rice seeds are sown directly into the field without raising nurseries or transplanting seedlings. It eliminates puddling, which normally consumes large amounts of water and labor. DSR requires laser leveling for uniform seed and fertilizer distribution. It reduces water use by about 30% compared to traditional transplanting and decreases fuel consumption. Weed control in DSR typically involves herbicides rather than flooding. DSR adoption can lower production costs and environmental impact, particularly by reducing methane emissions linked to flooded paddy fields.

Why in news?

DSR is gaining traction with the introduction of Imazethapyr-tolerant rice hybrids that allow more effective chemical weed control and reduce water consumption in the kharif season.

Dnyanganga Wildlife Sanctuary

The Dnyanganga Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected forest area in Maharashtra, established in 1996. It borders villages like Nandri in Buldhana district. Its creation led to the loss of traditional grazing lands for local pastoral communities like the Dhangars. The sanctuary is governed under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, which restricts grazing and other human activities to conserve wildlife and forest ecosystems. This has caused frequent conflicts between forest officials and shepherd communities, who argue that their grazing practices are sustainable and beneficial to soil health. The sanctuary is part of the region’s broader conservation efforts but remains controversial locally.

Why in news?

The declaration of Dnyanganga Wildlife Sanctuary in 1996 is cited as a key factor in the reduction of grazing lands, fueling ongoing disputes between the Dhangar community and forest authorities in 2024.

Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation is an agricultural watering technique that delivers water directly to plant roots through a network of tubes, pipes, and emitters. It minimizes water wastage by reducing evaporation and runoff. Invented in the mid-20th century, it is widely used in arid and semi-arid regions to improve water efficiency. Drip irrigation supports soil health by maintaining optimal moisture levels and reducing weed growth. It can be used with fertilizers in a process called fertigation. The method is especially beneficial for smallholder farmers with limited water resources. Its adoption is growing globally as a climate-smart agriculture tool.

Why in news?

Drip irrigation is the technique employed by Maasai women in Mvomero to grow vegetables efficiently under drought conditions, marking a shift from livestock dependence.

Eco-tax on Plastic Goods

An eco-tax on plastic goods is a government-imposed environmental levy aimed at reducing plastic waste and pollution. It incentivizes manufacturers and consumers to decrease plastic usage by increasing the cost of plastic products. Kenya introduced such a tax as part of its 2024 financial Bill to fund environmental initiatives and specialized hospitals. Globally, eco-taxes vary widely but share the goal of promoting sustainable alternatives. Kenya’s eco-tax aligns with its broader environmental policies, including bans on single-use plastics. Revenue from eco-taxes often supports waste management and recycling programs, though implementation challenges include enforcement and public acceptance.

Why in news?

The eco-tax on plastic goods was part of Kenya’s 2024 financial Bill that sparked widespread protests due to increased living costs.

Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) Belt in the Western Ghats

The Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) belt in the Western Ghats is a designated zone aimed at protecting critical biodiversity and ecosystems. It covers parts of six states – Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The ESA designation restricts certain developmental activities to conserve flora, fauna, and water resources. The Western Ghats is a UNESCO World Heritage site and a biodiversity hotspot with numerous endemic species. The ESA boundaries are periodically reviewed and revised based on ecological data and state inputs. The process involves balancing environmental protection with local economic interests, often leading to disputes over area inclusion or exclusion.

Why in news?

The Centre is preparing for a phased notification of ESA zones in the Western Ghats after nearly a decade of stalled consensus among the six states, with ongoing discussions to reconcile state proposals and expert panel recommendations.

Ecosystem-Based Sustainable Fishing

Ecosystem-based sustainable fishing is a fisheries management approach that considers entire marine ecosystems rather than focusing on single species. It emphasizes protecting food webs by reducing catches of forage fish like anchovies, sardines, krill, and herring, which support larger predators. This approach advocates for environmentally friendly fishing gear, establishing marine protected areas, and allowing fish to reproduce before harvesting. It aims to maintain ecosystem functions and biodiversity, enhancing resilience against environmental changes. The concept has gained traction as a response to overfishing and ecosystem degradation caused by traditional single-species management practices.

Why in news?

The new study recommends ecosystem-based sustainable fishing to address overfishing and improve the long-term health of global fish stocks.

Ecotourism in the Indian Himalayas

Ecotourism in the IHR promotes responsible travel to natural areas, emphasizing conservation, community participation, and sustainable resource use. The sector has grown at an average annual rate of 7.9% from 2013 to 2023. Unlike mass tourism, ecotourism aims to minimize environmental impact by using eco-friendly infrastructure and supporting local economies. However, much current tourism replaces eco-friendly setups with poorly planned roads and constructions, leading to biodiversity loss and pollution. Ecotourism practices include guided nature walks, wildlife observation, and cultural heritage tours, often involving local communities as stakeholders and beneficiaries.

Why in news?

Increasing tourism in the IHR threatens ecosystems, making ecotourism critical for sustainable development and conservation in the region.

El Niño Phenomenon

El Niño is a periodic climate pattern characterized by the warming of surface waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. It disrupts typical weather patterns, causing droughts, floods, and heatwaves worldwide. El Niño events occur irregularly every 2 to 7 years and last 9 to 12 months. The phenomenon influences global atmospheric circulation, affecting monsoons, hurricanes, and global temperatures. It is monitored using ocean buoys, satellites, and climate models. El Niño’s counterpart, La Niña, involves cooler Pacific waters and opposite weather effects.

Why in news?

The recent weakening of El Niño contributed to the halt of a 13-month heat record streak in July 2024, affecting global climate conditions.

Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV)

Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) is a highly fatal virus primarily affecting young Asian elephants. Unlike typical herpes viruses, EEHV targets endothelial cells lining blood vessels and vital organs, causing acute haemorrhagic disease. Mortality rates exceed 90% in infected calves. The virus can remain dormant but reactivates unpredictably, leading to sudden illness and death. EEHV is difficult to detect early as symptoms progress rapidly. It affects both captive and wild populations, posing threat to elephant conservation. Antiviral treatments exist but are only partially effective. EEHV has been responsible for multiple elephant deaths in zoos and sanctuaries globally.

Why in news?

The young elephant Mama died of EEHV infection at Kumarkhunti, prompting urgent calls for preventive measures to avoid an epidemic among local elephant populations.

Elevation-Dependent Warming

Elevation-dependent warming (EDW) refers to the phenomenon where temperature increases are more pronounced at higher altitudes compared to lower elevations. This effect is particularly in mountainous regions like the Himalayas. EDW results from factors such as snow-albedo feedback, changes in atmospheric water vapor, and cloud cover. It accelerates glacier melting, alters precipitation patterns, and increases the frequency of extreme weather events, including intense rainfall and landslides. This warming trend exacerbates climate vulnerability in high-altitude ecosystems and human settlements, impacting water resources and biodiversity.

Why in news?

Studies indicate that EDW contributes to increased landslide risk along the Char Dham National Highway route, raising concerns about the sustainability of road construction projects in Uttarakhand.

Entomophagy in North-East India

Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, is a traditional and nutritional custom in North-East India. Indigenous communities consume over 500 species of edible insects, including grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles, termites, bees, wasps, ants, cicadas, and aquatic insects. This practice provides essential protein and medicinal benefits. Some insects consumed have neurotoxic effects, like Coridius esculentus causing photophobia and hiding behavior, while others like Coridius chinensis induce dizziness and nausea. The indigenous knowledge surrounding entomophagy is at risk of being lost and requires documentation and conservation for sustainable use.

Why in news?

The discovery of new edible insect species marks the importance of preserving indigenous knowledge and promoting sustainable entomophagy in North-East India.

Farmer Participatory Breeding Approach

Farmer Participatory Breeding (FPB) involves farmers directly in the crop breeding process, from selection to evaluation. This approach integrates local knowledge and preferences with scientific breeding, enhancing the relevance and adoption of new varieties. FPB accelerates the development of crops adapted to specific agro-ecological conditions and socio-economic contexts. It encourages empowerment by involving farmers as active partners rather than passive recipients. FPB can improve genetic diversity conservation and resilience. It contrasts with conventional breeding, which is often centralized and less responsive to local needs. FPB is increasingly used in developing countries for crops like spices, cereals, and legumes.

Why in news?

IISR-Keralashree nutmeg variety was developed using the farmer participatory breeding approach, marking a milestone in Indian spice crop development.

Forest Encroachment in the Western Ghats

Since 2015, there have been widespread illegal encroachments in Karnataka’s Western Ghats, including unauthorized plantations, homestays, and resorts. These activities have caused environmental degradation and increased landslide risks. Karnataka’s Forest, Biology, and Environment Minister Eshwara B Khandre has ordered the clearing of all forest encroachments across multiple districts, including Kodagu, within one month. The order targets restoration of the natural habitat to protect biodiversity and reduce disaster vulnerability in this UNESCO World Heritage site.

Why in news?

The Karnataka government has initiated urgent action to remove illegal forest encroachments following recent deadly landslides in the Western Ghats, emphasizing environmental and public safety concerns.

Gambian Pouched Rat

The Gambian pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) is a large rodent native to sub-Saharan Africa, notable for its cheek pouches used to carry food. It is a known reservoir for the monkeypox virus, capable of harboring and transmitting the pathogen to humans. These rats can grow up to 3 feet long including the tail and are nocturnal omnivores. They have been implicated in zoonotic transmission events, especially near tropical rainforests. Gambian pouched rats were also controversially linked to a 2003 monkeypox outbreak in the United States due to the exotic pet trade.

Why in news?

The WHO identified Gambian pouched rats among animals carrying the mpox virus, relevant to understanding zoonotic transmission during the outbreak in Central Africa.

Gambusia

Gambusia, commonly known as mosquito fish, are small freshwater fish native to the southeastern United States. They are surface dwellers and often introduced worldwide for mosquito control due to their larvae-eating habits. However, Gambusia are aggressive and can displace native fish species by competing for food and habitat. They have a high reproductive rate and can survive in varied and polluted water conditions. Despite their mosquito control role, native species like Indian killifish and Indian ricefish (Oryzias) can serve similar ecological functions in India. Gambusia’s introduction has caused ecological imbalances in many non-native regions.

Why in news?

Gambusia was identified among invasive fish species in Korattur lake, Chennai, prompting discussions about their ecological impact and alternatives for mosquito control.

Gas Flaring

Gas flaring is the controlled burning of natural gas that is released during oil extraction. It converts methane into carbon dioxide, reducing methane’s more potent greenhouse effect but still emitting CO2. Flaring occurs because processing or transporting small amounts of gas is often uneconomical or impractical. It also serves safety purposes, preventing pressure buildup in equipment. However, flaring can still release raw methane if incomplete combustion occurs. The practice is widespread in oil-producing regions and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Regulations increasingly restrict flaring to minimize environmental impact and encourage gas capture or reinjection.

Why in news?

The European Union introduced regulations in May 2024 to ban most flaring, requiring fossil fuel companies to limit methane emissions and fix leaks within 15 working days.

Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)

The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the apex regulatory body in India responsible for the approval of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for environmental release and commercial use. It functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). The GEAC conducts risk assessments and reviews scientific data on GM crops, balancing innovation with biosafety concerns. It was established under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, and plays important role in India’s biotechnology governance. The committee’s decisions, such as the 2022 approval of DMH-11, are often subject to public and legal scrutiny.

Why in news?

GEAC’s 2022 approval of GM mustard DMH-11 triggered a Supreme Court case that led to a halt on its commercialization and a call for a national GM crop policy.

Genetic Rescue in Tiger Conservation

Genetic rescue involves introducing unrelated individuals into an isolated population to increase genetic diversity and reduce inbreeding depression. In small populations, homozygosity can increase harmful genetic traits, lowering survival and reproduction rates. Genetic rescue aims to increase heterozygosity, improving population fitness and long-term viability. This method has been applied in various species worldwide but has not been widely implemented for Indian tigers until now. The plan at STR to bring in female tigers from other states represents India’s first attempt at genetic rescue for tigers, requiring careful selection of genetically good source populations to optimize gene flow.

Why in news?

Odisha forest department received approval to introduce two female tigers into STR to reduce inbreeding and boost genetic diversity, marking India’s first tiger genetic rescue initiative.

Gentoo Penguin

The Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) is the third-largest penguin species, native to sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. They are identifiable by a white stripe extending like a bonnet across the top of their heads. Gentoo penguins have distinctive loud honks and brays used for communication, with mates recognizing each other’s unique calls. Their diet mainly consists of krill, fish, and squid. They build nests from stones and are known for carrying pebbles to create their nests. Lifespan averages 12 to 13 years in the wild. They can swim at speeds up to 36 km/h (22 mph).

Why in news?

Gentoo penguin Sphen, part of a famous same-sex penguin couple at SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium, died in August 2024, drawing attention to this species’ behavior and lifespan.

GISP2 (Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2)

GISP2 is a deep ice core drilling project conducted on the Greenland ice sheet, initiated in 1989 and completed in 1993. The core extracted is over 3,000 meters long and provides detailed climate records spanning approximately 100,000 years. It was drilled near the summit of the ice sheet to capture undisturbed layers of ice. The core has been instrumental in studying past atmospheric composition, temperature fluctuations, and volcanic eruptions. The site is located at an elevation of about 3,000 meters above sea level. The GISP2 ice core is stored at the National Science Foundation Ice Core Facility in Colorado.

Why in news?

GISP2 ice core samples from 1993 were reexamined to find fossil evidence indicating that Greenland’s ice sheet center melted nearly a million years ago.

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) occurs when a glacial lake’s natural dam, usually made of ice or moraine, fails, releasing large volumes of water rapidly downstream. These floods can cause catastrophic damage to communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems. GLOFs are triggered by factors such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, avalanches, or ice calving. The phenomenon is increasingly monitored due to climate change accelerating glacial melt. The classification of GLOF risk ranges from ‘A’ (high risk) to ‘C’ (low risk), helping prioritize mitigation efforts. Early warning systems and automatic weather stations are crucial for reducing damage from GLOFs.

Why in news?

Experts are studying six high-risk glacial lakes in Arunachal Pradesh to assess GLOF risks and plan mitigation, following a major GLOF event in South Lhonak lake, Sikkim, in 2023.

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is an international partnership of 184 countries, international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector that funds projects related to biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable development. Established in 1991, it serves as a financial mechanism for several environmental conventions, including the CBD. The GEF allocates grants and concessional funding to developing countries to support environmental initiatives. Criticism includes its governance structure, which some argue favors developed countries and lacks adequate representation for megadiverse nations. Its role as a potential host for the global fund on DSI benefit-sharing is contentious.

Why in news?

The GEF’s role as the host institution for the global fund on DSI benefit-sharing is debated at WGDSI-02 due to concerns over fairness and representation.

Global Flood Map (GFM)

The Global Flood Map (GFM) is an advanced modeling tool developed to predict flood risks worldwide by integrating rainfall, river discharge, and sea level rise. It improves on previous flood maps by using high-resolution data and new techniques to better simulate real flood behavior. The GFM adjusts flood probabilities based on projected climate-induced changes in hydrology and oceanography. It is designed to support infrastructure protection, insurance premium pricing, and climate regulation compliance. The map incorporates regional variations in flood hazards and can project future flood risks under different greenhouse gas emission scenarios.

Why in news?

The GFM was used in a recent study predicting a 49% increase in global flooding incidence by 2100 under high emissions, denoting its role in climate risk assessment.

Glucocorticoid Metabolite (GCM) Measurement in Wildlife

Glucocorticoid metabolites (GCMs) are breakdown products of stress hormones like cortisol and corticosterone. Measuring GCMs in faeces (fGCM) is a non-invasive method to assess stress in free-ranging wildlife. This technique allows researchers to monitor physiological stress without capturing animals, using samples collected from the environment. Validation of assays for specific species, such as the mugger crocodile, ensures accuracy. Elevated fGCM levels indicate chronic stress, which can impair reproduction and immune function. The method is widely used in conservation biology to evaluate the impact of environmental and anthropogenic stressors on animal well-being.

Why in news?

Researchers used validated fGCM assays to compare stress hormone levels in mugger crocodiles from different habitats in Gujarat, revealing higher stress in urban populations exposed to pollution and human disturbance.

GNSS-Reflectometry (GNSS-R) Payload

GNSS-R is a remote sensing technique that uses reflected signals from Global Navigation Satellite Systems to study Earth’s surface properties. The GNSS-R payload on EOS-08 measures ocean surface winds, soil moisture, flood detection, cryosphere monitoring, and inland water bodies by analyzing signal reflections. It operates by receiving signals from GNSS satellites reflected off Earth’s surfaces, enabling passive and cost-effective environmental monitoring. This technology is valuable for climate studies and disaster management, especially in remote or inaccessible regions like the Himalayas. GNSS-R payloads are emerging tools in Earth observation missions worldwide.

Why in news?

The GNSS-R payload aboard the newly launched EOS-08 satellite is designed to demonstrate advanced remote sensing applications for environmental and disaster monitoring.

Godavari Solar Project, Rajasthan

The Godavari solar project in Rajasthan is a demonstration site for solar paraboloid technology, utilizing parabolic trough collectors to harness concentrated solar power. Rajasthan’s high solar insolation makes it an ideal location for CSP projects. The Godavari project integrates advanced tracking and heat transfer systems to optimize energy capture and conversion. It serves as a testbed for scalability and economic viability of solar paraboloids in India. The project helps identify challenges like high upfront costs and maintenance needs, contributing data for improving future CSP installations.

Why in news?

The Godavari solar project is brought into light as a successful demonstration of solar paraboloid technology in India, showcasing practical application and challenges of this renewable energy innovation.

Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA)

GIDA is a governmental agency responsible for the development and infrastructure management of eight panchayats around Kochi, including Mulavukad, Kuzhuppilly, and Pallippuram. It focuses on improving living conditions, promoting sustainable development, and implementing environmental projects. GIDA is spearheading the Carbon Neutral Goshree Campaign to introduce solar power and waste management systems across these islands. It collaborates with agencies such as ANERT for renewable energy projects. GIDA’s work includes converting street lighting to LED and making anganwadis zero-emission institutions, reflecting a comprehensive approach to carbon footprint reduction in island communities.

Why in news?

GIDA is in the news for leading the Carbon Neutral Goshree Campaign, aiming to equip island households and public buildings with solar power to reduce carbon emissions in the Kochi region.

Grasslands

Grasslands are ecosystems dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees, covering about 20-40% of Earth’s terrestrial surface. They support a variety of herbivores and predators, including large carnivores like lions, wolves, and cheetahs. Grasslands are important carbon sinks and help regulate climate. They are vulnerable to conversion for agriculture and urban development. By 2070, human-wildlife overlap in grasslands is expected to rise, leading to a 56.3% reduction in large carnivore species diversity. This decline could disrupt food chains and ecological processes vital to grassland health.

Why in news?

Human expansion and population growth are predicted to increase overlap with grasslands, causing declines in large carnivore diversity by 2070.

Gravitational and rotational effects on sea-level rise

Sea-level rise is not uniform globally because of gravitational and rotational effects caused by ice mass loss. Large ice sheets exert gravitational pull on nearby ocean water, attracting it and raising local sea levels. When ice melts, this pull weakens, causing water to redistribute away from the ice sheet, lowering sea levels nearby but raising them farther away. Additionally, changes in Earth’s rotation due to mass redistribution alter ocean water distribution. These combined effects create regional sea-level variations, with low-latitude islands experiencing disproportionately higher sea-level rise compared to areas close to melting ice sheets.

Why in news?

Scientists show that gravitational and rotational factors cause uneven sea-level rise, worsening impacts on vulnerable low-latitude coastal regions.

Gravity Satellite-Based Terrestrial Mass Storage (TMS) Measurement

Gravity satellites, such as those from the GRACE mission, measure changes in Earth’s gravity field to estimate terrestrial mass storage (TMS) variations, which reflect changes in water, ice, and sediment mass on land. These satellites detect mass changes by measuring gravitational pull differences over time. The method assumes sediment transport is minimal, but in high erosion areas like the Tibetan Plateau, sediment flux contributes to TMS changes, causing overestimation of water loss if uncorrected. Long-term satellite data combined with sediment flux observations improve accuracy in assessing water resource changes in critical river basins.

Why in news?

New research incorporated sediment transport into gravity satellite TMS measurements on the Tibetan Plateau, refining estimates of terrestrial water storage loss critical for water resource management.

Greenland Ice Sheet

The Greenland Ice Sheet is the second-largest body of ice in the world, covering approximately 1.7 million square kilometers. It contains enough ice to raise global sea levels by about 7.4 meters if fully melted. The ice sheet is losing mass at an accelerated rate due to rising temperatures, contributing to global sea level rise. Meltwater from the ice sheet flows into the Atlantic Ocean, affecting ocean circulation patterns. The ice sheet’s stability is influenced by atmospheric warming, ocean temperatures, and surface melting. Its potential collapse is considered one of the most critical tipping points in the climate system.

Why in news?

The UN Secretary-General warned that the collapse of the Greenland Ice Sheet could cause catastrophic sea level rise, urging urgent global climate action during his 2024 statements.

Ground-level Ozone

Ground-level ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant formed by photochemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Unlike stratospheric ozone, which protects from UV radiation, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and vegetation. It is invisible, highly reactive, and damages respiratory tissues, aggravating asthma and chronic lung diseases. Ozone levels peak during sunny, warm months but can persist year-round in some regions. It is monitored through short-term exposure standards (one-hour and eight-hour averages) due to its acute toxicity. Ozone can travel long distances, making it a regional air quality challenge beyond urban sources.

Why in news?

The August 2024 report found increasing ground-level ozone pollution across Indian metros, with Delhi-NCR showing the most exceedance days, raising public health concerns.

Guliya Glacier

The Guliya Glacier is located on the northwestern Tibetan Plateau at an elevation exceeding 20,000 feet. It is one of the highest and coldest glaciers in the world and has been a key site for paleoclimate research since the 1990s. Ice cores extracted from Guliya have provided climate data spanning over 500,000 years. The glacier preserves ancient atmospheric gases and microorganisms, making it crucial for studying Earth’s climatic history and environmental changes. Its remote location and extreme altitude make sampling challenging but valuable for understanding past ice age conditions.

Why in news?

Guliya Glacier is in the news due to the discovery of 1,705 ancient viral genomes extracted from its ice, expanding knowledge of glacier-preserved viruses and their links to past climate changes.

Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve

The Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve is located in Chhattisgarh, spanning 2,829 square kilometres across four northern districts – Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur, Koriya, Surajpur, and Balrampur. It merges the existing Guru Ghasidas National Park and Tamor Pingla Sanctuary. This reserve is the third largest tiger reserve in India and the fourth tiger reserve in Chhattisgarh. The reserve was officially notified in August 2024 after delays caused by mining opposition and government inaction despite earlier approvals by the National Tiger Conservation Authority and the Union Environment Ministry. It aims to boost eco-tourism and local employment.

Why in news?

Chhattisgarh cleared the notification to create the Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve to address the sharp decline in its tiger population and strengthen conservation efforts.

Happy Seeder

The Happy Seeder is a tractor-mounted machine used for zero-tillage wheat sowing after rice harvest. It cuts and lifts rice stubble while simultaneously sowing wheat seeds directly into the soil without prior ploughing. This machine leaves crop residue on the field surface, which helps retain soil moisture and prevent erosion. It reduces air pollution by eliminating the need for stubble burning. The Happy Seeder can be used alone or in combination with a rotavator, which mixes residue into the soil. It facilitates conservation agriculture by enabling residue retention and zero tillage, improving soil health and reducing labor and fuel costs.

Why in news?

The Happy Seeder is part of the ‘FreeHit’ zero-tillage wheat technology promoted by Mahyco to reduce stubble burning and improve sustainability in wheat cultivation.

Heat Risk Observatory (HRO)

The Heat Risk Observatory (HRO) is a proposed institution aimed at detailed identification, assessment, and forecasting of heat risks in India. It focuses on monitoring urban heat islands, water stress, vector-borne diseases, crop losses, and biodiversity decline. The HRO would serve as a centralized hub for data collection and analysis related to heatwaves, enabling better preparedness and mitigation strategies. It integrates climate data with geographic information systems (GIS) to provide localized risk assessments. The observatory is designed to support policy-making and public health measures by providing early warnings and detailed heatwave impact forecasts.

Why in news?

The HRO has been proposed in a recent climate study addressing the rising frequency and intensity of heatwaves in India, emphasizing the need for enhanced heat risk management and resilience building.

Herbicide Tolerant (HT) Crops

Herbicide Tolerant (HT) crops are genetically engineered to survive applications of specific herbicides, allowing farmers to control weeds without damaging the crop. Common HT traits include resistance to glyphosate. While HT crops can simplify weed management, concerns exist about increased herbicide use, development of herbicide-resistant weeds, and negative effects on rural employment due to mechanization. HT crops may also lead to contamination of non-GM varieties and biodiversity loss. Several countries have debated or banned HT crops due to socio-economic and environmental risks, prompting calls for stringent biosecurity laws and precautionary regulatory frameworks.

Why in news?

The text mentions HT crops in the context of farmer unions opposing GM crops, emphasizing their adverse impact on employment and biodiversity, and demanding comprehensive biosecurity laws.

High-Efficiency Cooling Systems

High-efficiency cooling systems refer to advanced technologies designed to reduce energy consumption in air conditioning and refrigeration. These systems use improved compressors, refrigerants with low global warming potential, and innovative heat exchange methods to enhance performance. They are crucial in reducing peak electricity demand and greenhouse gas emissions, especially in hot climates like India. Some systems integrate smart controls and renewable energy sources to optimize cooling. The development and deployment of such systems are part of global efforts to improve energy efficiency in buildings and industries, contributing to climate change mitigation.

Why in news?

High-efficiency cooling systems were a key topic in the India-US talks aimed at promoting energy efficiency and reducing emissions as part of their clean energy partnership.

Holocene Era

The Holocene Era began about 11,700 years ago after the last major ice age and continues to the present. It marks a period of relatively stable climate conditions that allowed human civilization to develop agriculture, cities, and complex societies. The Holocene is characterized by rising temperatures, melting glaciers, and sea-level rise following the Pleistocene ice ages. Geological and archaeological records from this era provide critical information on human adaptation to climate changes. It is often contrasted with the preceding Pleistocene Epoch, which was dominated by repeated glacial cycles.

Why in news?

Carbon dating showed that Andean glaciers have retreated beyond any extent seen during the entire Holocene, indicating a dramatic and rapid environmental shift.

Human-Elephant Conflict in Maharashtra

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Maharashtra involves crop damage, human casualties, and retaliatory deaths of elephants. Elephants migrating from Karnataka and Chhattisgarh into Maharashtra face threats from electrocution and habitat fragmentation. The conflict varies by region, influenced by local socio-economic conditions and cultural acceptance of elephants. Some districts experience high human losses but low hostility, while others show low losses but high antagonism toward elephants. Mitigation strategies include landscape-level conservation, community engagement, and conflict-sensitive planning. HEC is factor delaying the establishment of an elephant reserve in the state.

Why in news?

Human-elephant conflict is a key concern raised by experts regarding the feasibility of declaring an elephant reserve in Maharashtra, affecting conservation planning and policy decisions.

Hyper-local Weather Forecasting

Hyper-local weather forecasting refers to predicting weather conditions at very fine spatial scales, such as 1 km x 1 km grids. IMD currently provides forecasts at 12 km x 12 km resolution, which covers areas larger than many Indian cities. Experimental forecasts at 3 km x 3 km resolution are underway. Hyper-local forecasts require dense observation networks, high computing power, and advanced models that account for local topography and urban effects. Such precision aids in planning daily activities and issuing timely warnings for localized extreme events like cloudbursts and flash floods. Achieving reliable hyper-local forecasts remains challenging due to inherent uncertainties and climate variability.

Why in news?

IMD’s goal to develop hyper-local forecasting capabilities is part of the major upgrade planned to cope with increasing extreme weather events and climate change impacts.

Ice Stupas

Ice stupas are artificial conical ice structures created by freezing water sprayed into cold mountain air during winter. Originating in the Indian Himalayas, they store water as ice, which melts slowly in spring to provide irrigation for villages facing water scarcity from glacial retreat. The design mimics Buddhist burial mounds called stupas. This technique has spread to Kyrgyzstan, Chile, and Mongolia. Ice stupas help communities adapt to shrinking glacier-fed water supplies but are vulnerable to rising temperatures. Their seasonal water storage capacity depends on winter cold and water availability, making them a temporary but innovative climate adaptation method.

Why in news?

Ice stupas are gaining attention as a climate adaptation method in mountainous regions affected by glacial melt and water shortages.

Ice-Cliff Instability

Ice-cliff instability refers to the process where towering, sheer ice cliffs at the edges of glaciers collapse under their own weight, causing rapid ice loss. This phenomenon is distinct from melting because it involves mechanical failure rather than gradual melting. It can trigger a feedback loop where collapsing cliffs expose even taller, more unstable cliffs, accelerating ice loss. The concept was proposed to explain potential rapid disintegration of ice sheets like West Antarctica’s. It remains a theoretical mechanism with limited direct observation, making it a “low-likelihood, high-impact” scenario in climate projections. Modeling ice-cliff instability involves simulating fracturing and ice flow dynamics.

Why in news?

Recent research suggests ice-cliff instability may be less likely than previously thought, based on new computer simulations of West Antarctica’s Thwaites Glacier, impacting sea-level rise predictions.

India Landslide Susceptibility Map (ILSM)

The India Landslide Susceptibility Map (ILSM) is a high-resolution map developed by IIT-Madras using machine learning models to identify landslide-prone areas in India. It reveals that 13.17% of India’s land area is susceptible to landslides, with 4.75% classified as very highly susceptible. The map shows Sikkim has the largest landslide-prone area at 57.6%, while Kerala is the most vulnerable outside the Himalayas. It also marks previously overlooked regions like parts of the Eastern Ghats and Arunachal Pradesh, where susceptibility was underestimated due to limited data.

Why in news?

IIT-Madras released the ILSM in 2024, providing new vital information about landslide vulnerability across India, especially after the deadly Wayanad landslides in Kerala.

Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) Hybridisation

The Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) is a subspecies of the gray wolf native to the Indian subcontinent. It is smaller and more slender than other gray wolves and adapted to arid and semi-arid habitats. Hybridisation occurs when Indian wolves breed with free-ranging domestic or feral dogs, producing wolf-dog hybrids. This genetic mixing can affect the behavior, ecology, and conservation status of wild wolves. Hybrids may exhibit reduced fear of humans and altered hunting patterns, sometimes increasing conflict. Hybridisation is more common in regions with high human population density and free-ranging dogs, such as eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Why in news?

The recent attacks in Bahraich may involve wolf-dog hybrids, as local wolves have hybridised with free-ranging dogs, complicating identification and behavior analysis of the attacking animal.

Indoor Mould Spores

Indoor mould spores are microscopic fungal particles that become airborne and can be inhaled, causing allergic reactions and respiratory problems. Mould thrives in damp, humid environments, especially during monsoon seasons when indoor moisture rises. Common indoor mould species include Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Penicillium. Exposure can trigger asthma attacks, allergic rhinitis, and other respiratory symptoms. Mould spores are resistant to many cleaning agents but can be controlled by maintaining low indoor humidity (below 50%) and ensuring proper ventilation. Prolonged exposure to certain mould species may lead to chronic respiratory diseases or hypersensitivity pneumonitis.

Why in news?

Indoor mould spores are a key factor in the surge of respiratory diseases during the monsoon due to increased humidity and inadequate ventilation in homes.

International Dark Sky Park

An International Dark Sky Park is a protected area recognized by the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) for its exceptional night sky quality and efforts to minimize light pollution. These parks implement strict lighting controls, promote public education about dark skies, and support astronomical research. Certification requires a management plan to preserve natural darkness and reduce artificial light impact. Globally, there are fewer than 50 such parks, with the designation helping conserve nocturnal wildlife and cultural heritage. The parks also boost eco-tourism and public awareness of light pollution’s ecological and health effects.

Why in news?

Pench Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra was designated India’s first International Dark Sky Park in January 2024, joining Asia’s efforts to protect night skies and promote astronomy.

International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)

The International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) is a Canadian-based independent think tank focused on sustainable development and environmental governance. Founded in 1990, IISD conducts research and policy analysis on climate change, resource management, and economic development. It provides data-driven insights to governments and organizations worldwide. IISD’s experts reported in 2024 that Arctic fossil fuel reserves discovered under polar ice caps could release 12 billion tonnes of CO2 if exploited, exceeding emissions from the previous four years’ discoveries combined. IISD plays a key role in denoting the environmental risks of fossil fuel expansion in sensitive regions like the Arctic.

Why in news?

IISD provided critical data on the potential CO2 emissions from Arctic fossil fuel exploitation, informing the climate litigation against Norway’s oil expansion.

Jhora

A jhora is a local stormwater drain or flood harvesting system commonly found in Darjeeling. It channels excess rainwater downhill to prevent flooding and soil erosion. Jh oblong, narrow channels often run alongside steep slopes. These systems are integral to managing monsoon rains in hilly terrains. Similar to Aahar Pynes in Bihar and nullahs in northern India, they serve both drainage and water conservation functions. Improper waste disposal into jhoras causes blockages and environmental degradation downstream. They contribute to local water management but require community upkeep to function properly.

Why in news?

Jhoras are brought into light due to waste mismanagement in Darjeeling, where residents commonly dispose of household waste into these drains, exacerbating water and sanitation problems amid the monsoon season.

Jhum Agriculture

Jhum is a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice widely used in Northeast India. It involves clearing forested land by cutting and burning vegetation to create temporary fields for cultivation. After a few years of farming, the land is left fallow to regenerate naturally, while farmers move to a new plot. This shifting cultivation supports subsistence farming but can lead to soil degradation if fallow periods shorten. Jhum is practiced among various indigenous communities and is adapted to hilly terrains. The method influences local ecology and biodiversity, sometimes creating secondary habitats for species in regenerating forests.

Why in news?

New bent-toed gecko species were found in regenerating jhum lands in Nagaland, showing the ecological importance of these traditionally farmed areas.

Jurala Hydroelectric Project

The Jurala Project is a hydroelectric power station on the Krishna River in Telangana. It contributes to regional power supply, with recorded generation increasing notably in early August. The project works in tandem with the Lower Jurala station. Jurala’s flood discharge capacity is substantial, having contributed about half of the flood volume during the historic 2009 flood event at Srisailam. It plays a vital role in managing floodwaters and supplementing power generation downstream. The project’s output is measured in million units (MU), with recent figures showing a rise from 235.83 MU in July to 355.91 MU in early August.

Why in news?

Jurala’s power generation increased in early August due to higher water release from Tungabhadra Dam, aiding downstream hydroelectric projects in Telangana.

Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP)

The Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP) is a multilateral initiative aimed at supporting countries in shifting from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources. Launched in 2021, it involves collaboration between governments, international organizations, and private sector actors. Vietnam is one of the early recipients, receiving funding and technical assistance to develop renewable energy projects and reduce carbon emissions. The partnership focuses on balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability, addressing energy security, and promoting green jobs. It represents a new model of climate finance emphasizing fairness for emerging economies transitioning to low-carbon economies.

Why in news?

The EU’s ongoing support to Vietnam includes funding through the Just Energy Transition Partnership to help the country implement ecological projects amid its rapid economic growth and environmental challenges.

Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR)

The Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu was created under Project Tiger in 1988 and legally notified in 2007. It covers about 160,000 hectares, including core and buffer zones, and incorporates the Manjolai estate. The reserve protects endangered species like the tiger and lion-tailed macaque. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 mandates ecologically compatible land use and safeguards local residents’ rights, including forest rights and voluntary relocation. KMTR is managed to balance wildlife conservation with the livelihoods of resident communities living within its boundaries.

Why in news?

KMTR’s inclusion of Manjolai estate land complicates forest rights and conservation policies, impacting workers’ claims and government decisions on land use and rehabilitation.

Kaliveli Bird Sanctuary

Kaliveli Bird Sanctuary, situated in Villupuram district of Tamil Nadu, covers around 13.5 square kilometers of brackish water wetlands. It is one of the largest coastal wetlands in South India, supporting over 130 bird species, including flamingos, pelicans, and storks. The sanctuary is part of the Kaliveli Lake, a shallow lagoon fed by seasonal rivers, and serves as important feeding and breeding ground for migratory birds. It also supports local fisheries and mangrove ecosystems. The wetland is threatened by encroachment and pollution, making its Ramsar designation key to conservation efforts.

Why in news?

Kaliveli Bird Sanctuary was recently added to the list of Ramsar sites, enhancing protection measures for this ecologically wetland in Tamil Nadu.

Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team

The Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team is a specialized emergency response unit tasked with managing volcanic hazards in the Kamchatka Peninsula. It coordinates with scientific bodies and local authorities to issue alerts, conduct evacuations, and minimize risks from volcanic activity. The team monitors ash clouds, lava flows, and seismic events, providing timely information to aviation and residents. It operates within a region with over 300 volcanoes, 29 of which are active, making Kamchatka one of the most volcanically active areas on Earth.

Why in news?

The team issued a “code red” aviation warning after Shiveluch’s eruption due to the dangerous ash cloud affecting air traffic.

Karakoram Anomaly

The Karakoram anomaly refers to the unusual stability or slight growth of some glaciers in the Karakoram mountain range, which spans Pakistan, Afghanistan, and China, despite global warming. Unlike most glaciers worldwide that are retreating, Karakoram glaciers have shown minimal mass loss or even expansion in recent decades. This is attributed to unique regional weather patterns, including increased precipitation and cooler temperatures during certain periods. However, scientists warn this anomaly may not last, as warming is expected to eventually affect the region. The Karakoram contains some of the world’s tallest peaks, including K2, the second highest mountain on Earth.

Why in news?

The Karakoram anomaly contrasts with widespread glacier retreat, offering insight into regional climate variations amidst global warming trends.

Kassandra Peninsula

The Kassandra Peninsula is the westernmost of Halkidiki’s three fingers in northern Greece. It is renowned for its vibrant tourism industry, attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors annually. Kassandra has numerous resorts, beaches, and nightlife spots. The area’s population increases from about 17,000 year-round residents to over 650,000 in summer. This seasonal influx places intense pressure on local resources, especially water. The peninsula’s agriculture includes olives, grapes, and citrus fruits. Kassandra’s water demand during peak tourist season often exceeds sustainable supply, exacerbating drought effects and contributing to environmental stress.

Why in news?

Kassandra’s tourism boom during a severe drought has intensified water shortages, threatening local agriculture and natural water reserves.

Kasturirangan Panel

The Kasturirangan Panel was constituted in 2012 to recommend eco-sensitive zone demarcations in the Western Ghats. It proposed an ESA arely smaller than earlier recommendations, aiming to balance conservation with development. The panel suggested excluding dense human habitations and focusing on ecologically fragile regions. Its draft recommended around 60,000 sq km as ESA, less than the 64,000 sq km suggested by the Gadgil Panel. The panel’s report influenced subsequent ESA notifications but faced criticism from environmentalists and some states for perceived leniency. It remains a key reference in ongoing ESA boundary negotiations.

Why in news?

The Kasturirangan Panel’s recommendations are being revisited in the current ESA notification process, with Maharashtra aligning closely to its suggestions while other states seek further changes.

Kattur Village Mangrove Restoration

Kattur village in Tiruvallur district has undergone mangrove restoration over 30 acres by the Mangrove Foundation of India. Camera traps recently recorded spotted deer and wild boar, indicating biodiversity recovery. The Kosasthalaiyar riverbanks host this restoration site. Restoration efforts began two years ago, focusing on reestablishing mangrove ecosystems that stabilize soil and support wildlife. The project is part of broader conservation efforts in Tamil Nadu to revive coastal mangrove habitats. Mangroves here help protect the coastline from erosion and provide habitat to various species, contributing to ecological balance and local economic benefits through eco-tourism and fisheries.

Why in news?

Kattur village’s mangrove restoration project recently captured images of wildlife, signaling successful biodiversity resurgence after two years of restoration work by the Mangrove Foundation of India.

Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary

Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary spans 5151.6 hectares on the Coromandel Coast in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. It is a brackish shallow lake connected to the Bay of Bengal via Uppukalli creek and Edayanthittu Estuary. Kazhuveli is one of the largest wetlands in peninsular India, rich in biodiversity and a vital stopover for migratory birds. It supports breeding of resident birds and fish and contributes to aquifer recharge. The area contains degraded mangrove patches with Avicennia species and reed beds. Historically, it harbored Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests before wetland formation. It was declared Tamil Nadu’s 16th bird sanctuary in 2021.

Why in news?

Added as a Ramsar site on August 14, 2024, denoting its significance for migratory birds and wetland conservation.

Korattur Lake

Korattur Lake is a freshwater lake located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. It supports diverse aquatic life and is surrounded by several villages with local inland fishermen communities. The lake attracts multiple bird species, making it a candidate for bird sanctuary status. It has faced environmental threats from industrial effluents, leading to legal actions such as a National Green Tribunal stay on pollutant discharge. The lake’s ecosystem is currently stressed by invasive fish species, which are affecting native fish populations and the livelihoods of fishermen dependent on the lake. Conservation efforts are ongoing.

Why in news?

Korattur Lake is under ecological threat due to invasive fish species and pollution; local groups are advocating for its protection and bird sanctuary status.

Kuarmunda Block

Kuarmunda is an administrative block in the Sundargarh district of Odisha, predominantly inhabited by the Munda tribal community. The block features rainfed agriculture primarily focused on traditional crops such as millets, pulses, and vegetables. Kuarmunda has witnessed a revival of indigenous farming practices, especially by women farmers like Jyoti Dang, who achieved record finger millet yields. The region’s agro-ecology is characterized by drought-prone conditions where traditional crop varieties adapted to local soil and climate thrive. Kuarmunda’s farming system supports biodiversity, attracts pollinators like honeybees and butterflies, and sustains local ecosystems through organic and mixed cropping methods.

Why in news?

Jyoti Dang from Kuarmunda’s Bartoli village is noted for her success in millet cultivation, inspiring a resurgence of traditional crops and ecosystem restoration in the block.

Land-based Tropical Depressions

Land-based tropical depressions are rare weather phenomena where a low-pressure system forms and intensifies over land rather than over warm ocean waters. These systems require sufficient moisture from soil and surrounding areas, combined with favorable atmospheric conditions such as vorticity and unstable air. Traditionally, tropical depressions develop over seas where evaporation supplies moisture, but certain monsoon wind configurations and soil moisture can support land-based development. Such systems can cause heavy rainfall and flooding inland, challenging typical cyclone formation models. Their study helps improve forecasting of unusual monsoon and cyclone events.

Why in news?

The deep depression over Gujarat in August 2024 formed and intensified over land, a rare event contributing to heavy rains and floods.

Land-Born Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean

Typically, cyclones in the North Indian Ocean form over oceanic waters. However, land-born cyclones are rare phenomena where a low-pressure system develops and intensifies over land before moving over the ocean to strengthen into a cyclone. The recent cyclone Asna originated from a strong depression that grew unusually powerful over land, fed by soil moisture from prior rainfall. This system then moved onto the warm Arabian Sea, gaining energy and convection to develop into a cyclone, making it one of the first land-born cyclones in August since 1981.

Why in news?

Cyclone Asna’s rare formation as a land-born cyclone in August is notable due to its unusual growth over land and subsequent intensification over the Arabian Sea.

Landslide Atlas of India (ISRO)

The Landslide Atlas of India, released by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 2023, maps landslide hotspots across the country using satellite imagery and geospatial analysis. It identifies the Himalayas and Western Ghats as the most vulnerable regions. The atlas integrates data on topography, geology, and historical landslide occurrences, aiding disaster management and planning. It is a pioneering resource for policymakers, scientists, and local authorities to assess landslide risks and implement mitigation strategies based on spatial data.

Why in news?

ISRO’s Landslide Atlas was released recently to assist in disaster preparedness following increased landslide events in India, including the Kerala floods and landslides.

LANDSLIP Project

The LANDSLIP project is a collaborative research initiative between India, the United Kingdom, and Italy, developed from 2016 to 2021 to create a prototype for a rainfall-induced landslide early warning system. It integrates regional rainfall forecasts with landslide susceptibility maps to predict landslide risks over short (24-48 hours) and medium (up to 10 days) terms. The project identified 30 weather patterns linked to landslides, enhancing forecast accuracy. It uses rainfall intensity and duration thresholds adapted from Italian models, tailored for Indian geological contexts. Social scientists contributed to governance and communication strategies for warnings.

Why in news?

The LANDSLIP project prototype was adopted by the Geological Survey of India for operational use in landslide-prone areas like Kalimpong and Darjeeling, marking step in disaster preparedness in India.

Lantana camara

Lantana camara is an invasive ornamental shrub native to Central and South America, introduced globally during British colonial times in the 1800s. It grows up to 20 feet tall and forms dense thickets with flowers in white, pink, yellow, orange, and red hues. It spreads rapidly due to bird-dispersed seeds and aggressive root systems. Lantana camara occupies over 154,000 sq km of forest area in India, including tiger habitats and national parks. It outcompetes native plants like Jungli kharonda and Heens, disrupts grasslands essential for herbivores, and regenerates quickly even after removal unless roots are fully extracted.

Why in news?

Lantana camara’s spread in Delhi-NCR and the Aravalli region has surged, threatening native biodiversity and prompting repeated removal efforts by forest departments and environmentalists.

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. It spreads through water contaminated by the urine of infected animals, mainly rodents. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to severe complications such as kidney damage, liver failure, and meningitis. Kerala has reported a rising trend in leptospirosis cases and deaths over the years. The disease peaks during monsoon seasons due to increased exposure to contaminated water. Diagnosis is challenging because of atypical symptoms. Treatment involves antibiotics like doxycycline or penicillin. Preventive measures include rodent control and avoiding contact with contaminated water sources.

Why in news?

Kerala reported 1,916 confirmed and 1,565 probable leptospirosis cases with 120 confirmed and 102 probable deaths in 2024, denoting a continuing public health challenge amid monsoon-related outbreaks.

Lig​er

A liger is a hybrid offspring of a male lion (Panthera leo) and a female tiger (Panthera tigris). Ligers are the largest of all big cats, often growing larger than either parent species. They are typically sterile, especially males, due to genetic differences between lions and tigers. Ligers exhibit physical and behavioral traits from both species, such as lion-like manes in males and tiger-like stripes on their bodies. These hybrids do not occur naturally in the wild but are bred in captivity. Their bones are sometimes used as substitutes for lion bones in illegal wildlife trade, complicating conservation efforts for wild tigers.

Why in news?

South African lion farms are now breeding ligers as a response to the phasing out of captive lion breeding, raising concerns about impacts on wild tiger populations due to bone trade substitution.

Lightning Conductivity of Palm Trees

Palm trees have unique properties that make them effective natural lightning conductors. Their tall stature and high moisture content, including sap rich in electrolytes, allow them to absorb and channel lightning strikes safely into the ground. This reduces the likelihood of lightning causing injury or structural damage nearby. Palm trees’ fibrous trunks and flexible leaves also dissipate electrical energy. However, it takes 15 to 20 years for palms to grow to an effective height of around 20 feet. Despite their conductivity, palms can catch fire after a strike, posing secondary risks. Their use in lightning mitigation is an emerging, nature-based strategy.

Why in news?

Odisha’s government approved planting 20 lakh palm trees statewide to reduce lightning fatalities by utilizing their natural lightning conductor properties.

Long Period Average (LPA) in Meteorology

The Long Period Average (LPA) refers to the average rainfall calculated over a 30-year period to define “normal” precipitation levels for a region. In India, the Indian Meteorological Department revises the LPA every decade to reflect changing climatic patterns. For Rajasthan, the LPA was updated in 2020, shifting from the 1961-2010 baseline to 1971-2020. This revision led to an increase in the normal rainfall figures for districts like Jaisalmer, reflecting higher recent rainfall trends. The LPA is crucial for agricultural planning, water resource management, and drought/flood assessment.

Why in news?

IMD revised Rajasthan’s rainfall normal figures in 2020 and 2022, adjusting Jaisalmer’s average rainfall upward due to increased precipitation over recent decades.

Madeira River

The Madeira River is one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon River, running approximately 3,250 kilometers through Bolivia and Brazil. It is a vital waterway for transportation and supports diverse aquatic ecosystems. The river basin is rich in biodiversity, including several endemic fish species. It plays important role in regional agriculture and hydroelectric power generation, with dams like Santo Antônio and Jirau built on it. The Madeira River is sensitive to seasonal rainfall variations and deforestation upstream, which affect water levels and quality. Recent droughts have caused water scarcity in the river basin.

Why in news?

The Madeira River basin is facing increased water scarcity amid drought conditions worsening wildfires and environmental stress in the Amazon region in 2024.

Madhav Gadgil Committee

The Madhav Gadgil Committee was constituted in 2010 to assess the ecological status of the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in India. It recommended demarcating Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to regulate human activities like construction and agriculture to conserve fragile ecosystems. The committee categorized ESAs into three zones based on environmental fragility. It emphasized involving local communities in conservation efforts to avoid adverse impacts on livelihoods. Its recommendations included restricting land-use changes and regulating tourism. Despite its scientific basis, the report faced opposition from farmers and political groups for being environmentally stringent and affecting development.

Why in news?

Kerala’s recurring landslides have brought renewed attention to the Madhav Gadgil Committee’s recommendations for protecting ecologically sensitive zones in the Western Ghats.

Mahua Flower Harvesting

Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) is a tropical tree native to central India, valued for its sweet flowers used in traditional food, drinks, and local liquor. Mahua flowers are harvested seasonally by tribal and rural communities, providing economic sustenance. The collection process often involves clearing undergrowth, which can increase forest fire risk if burning is used to facilitate harvesting. Mahua trees also have ecological importance, supporting pollinators and biodiversity. The flower’s fermentation yields a culturally alcoholic beverage, integral to many indigenous customs and festivals.

Why in news?

Mahua flower harvesting practices in Khandwa and North Betul divisions contribute to increased forest fire risks, as noted in the recent fire dynamics study.

Malana Power Project Stage 1

The Malana Power Project Stage 1 is a hydropower facility located in Himachal Pradesh’s Kullu district. It has a capacity of 9 MW. The project experienced a dam burst triggered by a cloudburst on July 31, 2024, causing downstream flooding and damage. The project is one of several hydropower installations in the region implicated in ecological disturbances and increased natural disaster incidents. The dam’s failure brought into light the vulnerability of infrastructure in mountainous regions to extreme weather events exacerbated by environmental changes linked to hydropower development.

Why in news?

The Malana Power Project Stage 1 dam burst after a cloudburst caused heavy flooding, resulting in extensive damage and contributing to the ongoing disaster situation in Himachal Pradesh.

Mangar Bani

Mangar Bani is a sacred grove and one of the last surviving natural forests in the Delhi-NCR region, located in the Aravalli hills of Haryana. It is considered one of the oldest human settlements in the Indian subcontinent, with archaeological evidence dating back to the Paleolithic age. The forest is rich in biodiversity, hosting native species like Dholiya and Jhadber shrubs. Mangar Bani plays important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the Aravallis, acting as a green lung for the region. It has recently faced ecological threats from invasive species like Lantana camara, which were previously absent.

Why in news?

Mangar Bani has seen a rapid invasion of the non-native shrub Lantana camara, disrupting its native flora and ecological balance, as revealed by a recent assessment by the Centre for Ecology Development and Research (CEDAR).

Market for Particulate Pollution in Gujarat

Gujarat launched the world’s first market for particulate pollution in 2019, a cap-and-trade system targeting PM2.5 emissions. This market sets pollution limits for industries and allows trading of emission credits, incentivizing reductions. The initiative led to a 20-30% pollution decrease in Surat and is expanding to other cities and states. It is considered an innovative policy blending environmental regulation with market mechanisms to reduce air pollution without hindering economic growth. The program is unique globally for focusing specifically on particulate matter rather than general emissions.

Why in news?

This market-based approach contributed to India’s air quality improvements, demonstrating scalable innovation in pollution control.

Melanistic Tigers (Pseudo-melanism)

Melanism in tigers refers to an increased dark pigmentation, but in STR tigers, it is a form called pseudo-melanism where thick, merged stripes create a dark appearance rather than a solid black coat. This phenotype is linked to a mutation in the Transmembrane Amino-peptidase Q (Taqpep) gene. The mutation is rare globally but has a high frequency in STR due to the population’s isolation and inbreeding. Unlike true melanism seen in other species, pseudo-melanism in STR tigers does not negatively affect health or survival. It is an inherited trait passed from a single pseudomelanistic male tiger that mated with females in the reserve.

Why in news?

STR’s tiger population is about 60% melanistic, an unusually high frequency linked to genetic isolation, prompting conservation efforts to introduce genetic diversity.

Methane Concentration Trends

Methane (CH4) is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential much higher than carbon dioxide over a 20-year period. Its atmospheric concentration has risen more rapidly in the past decade than in the previous one, driven by emissions from fossil fuel extraction, agriculture (especially cattle), and wetlands. Methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime than CO2 but impacts near-term warming. Efforts to monitor and reduce methane emissions are critical for climate mitigation. Methane also contributes to ozone formation in the lower atmosphere, affecting air quality and human health.

Why in news?

Rising methane levels have been identified as an important factor in recent global warming acceleration, alongside fossil fuel combustion and El Niño effects.

Microfungi

Microfungi are microscopic fungi that include a diverse range of species found in soil, water, and on decaying organic matter. They play essential roles in nutrient cycling by decomposing complex organic compounds. Some microfungi can metabolize synthetic polymers like plastics, using them as a sole carbon source. Their enzymatic systems enable them to break down polymers such as polyurethane, although efficiency depends on environmental conditions like temperature and nutrient availability. Microfungi contribute to biomass formation during plastic degradation and represent a natural adaptation to increasing plastic pollution in ecosystems.

Why in news?

Research in Germany focused on microfungi’s ability to degrade plastics, showing their potential in reducing environmental plastic waste.

Microplastic Fibres in Salt and Sugar

Microplastic fibres are tiny synthetic threads less than 5 millimeters long, often shed from textiles and plastic products. They enter the environment through wastewater and atmospheric deposition. In food products like salt and sugar, these fibres appear as thin, multicolored strands, including transparent, blue, red, and black hues. Their presence indicates contamination from plastic pollution in manufacturing, packaging, or environmental exposure. Microplastic fibres can vary in size from 0.1 mm to 5 mm and pose health risks due to ingestion. Studies show fibres are the most common microplastic form in edible salts and sugars, followed by films and pellets.

Why in news?

The August 2024 Toxics Link study found a higher concentration of microplastic fibres in iodised salt and sugar samples sold in India, raising concerns about food safety.

Microplastics in Bone Marrow

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles less than 5mm in diameter. In a recent study, microplastics were detected in all 16 bone marrow samples examined. Bone marrow is a soft tissue inside bones responsible for producing blood cells. The presence of microplastics in bone marrow raises concerns about potential impacts on blood cell production and immune function. This discovery marks one of the first documented cases of microplastics penetrating deep into human bone tissue, denoting the pervasive nature of plastic pollution within the human body beyond commonly studied organs like lungs and liver.

Why in news?

Microplastics were found in all bone marrow samples examined last month, showing deep penetration of plastic pollution in human tissues beyond typical organs.

Microplastics in Food Matrices

Microplastics are plastic particles smaller than 5 millimeters, often found in various environmental media including food. In food matrices, microplastics can contaminate items like salt, sugar, seafood, and bottled water. These particles originate from the breakdown of larger plastics or from microbeads used in products. Their presence in food raises concerns about human exposure to toxic additives and pollutants adsorbed on plastic surfaces. Analytical detection of microplastics in complex food matrices requires specialized techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy. About prevalence and exposure levels is critical for developing food safety standards.

Why in news?

FSSAI launched a project to develop methods for detecting micro- and nano-plastics in food matrices to assess contamination levels and consumer exposure in India.

Mithun (Bos frontalis)

The mithun, also called gayal, is a semi-wild bovine native to the northeastern hills of India and parts of Myanmar. It is the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Mithuns are reared mainly by hill tribes for meat, milk, and draught power. They are known for their robust build and adaptability to hilly terrains. The species is vulnerable to foot-and-mouth disease and other bovine illnesses. Their population in India was last recorded at 386,311 in 2019, with most found in Arunachal Pradesh. They are culturally and often involved in tribal rituals and social functions.

Why in news?

Mithuns were recorded for the first time in Assam’s Dima Hasao district, expanding their known range and prompting new conservation and farming initiatives.

Monocropping in Wayanad Plantations

Monocropping in Wayanad refers to the extensive cultivation of a single crop, primarily tea, introduced during British colonial rule and expanded post-Independence. This practice has led to a 62% reduction in forest cover between 1950 and 2018, replaced by plantations that cover 1,800% more area. Monocropping weakens soil stability by replacing diverse forest root systems with uniform crop roots, increasing susceptibility to erosion and landslides. Plantation agriculture has altered local ecosystems, reducing biodiversity and affecting water retention. These changes contribute to the region’s vulnerability to natural disasters like landslides, especially during heavy monsoon rains.

Why in news?

Monocropping is cited as a key anthropogenic factor worsening the impact of the 2024 Wayanad landslides by destabilizing soil and reducing forest cover.

Moraine Dams

Moraine dams are natural barriers formed by debris and sediment deposited by glaciers. These dams trap glacial meltwater to create lakes. They are unstable and prone to collapse due to factors such as water pressure, earthquakes, landslides, or avalanches. Moraine dam failure can trigger Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), which pose hazards downstream. In Sikkim, the stability of moraine dams at threatened lakes is being assessed using pressure probes, geophysical surveys, and ground-penetrating radar. These studies aim to develop mitigation strategies such as siphoning, pumping, and lakebed reshaping to reduce flood risks.

Why in news?

Sikkim’s flood recovery expedition is focused on testing the strength of moraine dams at glacial lakes and devising hazard mitigation plans after recent flood disasters.

Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)

The mugger crocodile, also known as the marsh crocodile, is a freshwater crocodilian native to the Indian subcontinent. It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and protected under Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Muggers rank third among crocodilians in human-crocodile conflict incidents, after saltwater and Nile crocodiles. They inhabit rivers, lakes, and marshes, showing adaptability to urban and rural environments. Mugger crocodiles produce glucocorticoid stress hormones in response to environmental stress, affecting reproduction and immunity. They can live up to 70 years in the wild and reach lengths of up to 4.5 meters.

Why in news?

A recent study found increased stress hormone levels in mugger crocodiles from the polluted urban area of Vadodara compared to those in rural Charotar, denoting conservation challenges amid rising human-crocodile conflicts.

Multilateral Mechanism for Benefit-Sharing

The Multilateral Mechanism is a proposed global system under the CBD to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of Digital Sequence Information on genetic resources. It aims to pool contributions from users worldwide into a global fund, which would then distribute resources to biodiversity-rich countries and indigenous communities. The mechanism is designed to overcome challenges posed by bilateral agreements and the difficulty of tracing DSI use. It includes options for monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing and governance structures. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has been proposed as a host, but its suitability is contested due to perceived biases toward developed countries.

Why in news?

The Multilateral Mechanism is a key topic of debate at WGDSI-02 and COP16, with unresolved issues on fund management and equitable representation.

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity that came into force in October 2014. It establishes a legal framework for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol requires users to obtain prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms with providers before accessing genetic materials. It aims to support conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing with indigenous peoples and local communities. However, it does not currently cover digital sequence information explicitly, complicating its application to modern genetic data sharing.

Why in news?

The Nagoya Protocol is referenced as the existing framework for benefit-sharing, but its limitations regarding DSI are a key issue at the 2024 Montreal meeting on biodiversity benefit-sharing.

Nandankanan Zoological Park

Nandankanan Zoological Park, located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, is a renowned zoo and botanical garden established in 1960. It is the first zoo in India to join the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). The park spans over 437 hectares and houses a wide variety of animals, including rare and endangered species. It is notable for its successful captive breeding programs, especially for white tigers and Asiatic lions. The zoo also serves as a rescue and rehabilitation centre for injured wildlife. It has veterinary facilities and collaborates with wildlife experts for conservation research and education.

Why in news?

Mama, the young elephant who died from herpes virus infection, was initially brought to Nandankanan Zoo after being separated from her mother before being moved to the Kumarkhunti training centre.

Nanjarayan Bird Sanctuary

Nanjarayan Bird Sanctuary is a shallow lake wetland covering 125.865 hectares in Tiruppur District, Tamil Nadu. It was restored centuries ago by King Nanjarayan and depends on rainfall from the Nallar drainage. The sanctuary hosts 191 bird species, 87 butterfly species, 7 amphibians, 21 reptiles, 11 small mammals, and 77 plant species. It serves as a critical feeding and nesting habitat for resident and migratory birds, supports agriculture, and aids groundwater recharge. Declared Tamil Nadu’s 17th bird sanctuary, it is actively managed by local communities and the forest department to preserve biodiversity and ecological balance.

Why in news?

Declared a Ramsar site on August 14, 2024, recognizing its ecological importance and biodiversity conservation role.

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

Launched in 2019, the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) is India’s flagship initiative to reduce particulate pollution by 20-30% by 2024 relative to 2017 levels. It involves 132 non-attainment cities with high pollution, promoting multi-sectoral action plans, real-time monitoring, and public awareness. NCAP currently emphasizes PM10 and PM2.5 control but has limited focus on gases like ozone and nitrogen oxides. The programme encourages state governments to implement emission standards for industries, vehicles, and construction activities. It also supports research and capacity building for air quality management. NCAP is coordinated by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Why in news?

The CSE report urges NCAP to expand its scope to address ozone and nitrogen oxides alongside particulate matter for more effective air pollution control.

National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping

India’s National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping initiative, launched by the Geological Survey of India in 2014, covers 0.42 million square kilometers of landslide-prone zones at a scale of 1:50,000. The maps classify susceptibility based on factors like slope steepness, soil type, vegetation, and geology. This mapping is foundational for early warning systems, providing a detailed terrain overview to identify high-risk areas. The scale means 1 unit on the map equals 50,000 units on the ground, allowing precise regional risk assessments. The database is periodically updated with new data from ongoing research and field observations.

Why in news?

The susceptibility maps are the base layer for the new landslide early warning system recently activated in select Indian regions, helping predict and mitigate landslide risks.

National Pest Surveillance System (NPSS)

The National Pest Surveillance System (NPSS) is an AI-driven platform launched by the Government of India to assist farmers in pest identification and management. It enables farmers to upload images of infested crops or insects via their phones, which are then analyzed using AI tools to provide accurate pest diagnosis and treatment recommendations. NPSS aims to reduce farmers’ dependence on pesticide retailers and minimize excessive pesticide use. It connects farmers directly with agricultural scientists and experts, facilitating timely and scientific pest control. The system targets around 14 crore farmers and was developed after successful pilot trials. It requires no additional funding for implementation.

Why in news?

Launched on August 15, 2024, NPSS was introduced to promote scientific pest management and improve crop yield by connecting farmers with experts through AI technology.

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

The National Tiger Conservation Authority was established in 2005 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, to oversee tiger conservation in India. It functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. NTCA sets guidelines for tiger habitat management, monitoring, and protection, and coordinates Project Tiger efforts nationwide. It also facilitates scientific research, capacity building, and funding for tiger reserves. NTCA has the authority to approve tiger reserve management plans and enforce anti-poaching measures. It collaborates with state forest departments, wildlife NGOs, and international agencies to ensure tiger population recovery and habitat preservation.

Why in news?

The SIT report on tiger deaths in Madhya Pradesh was submitted to the NTCA, which oversees tiger conservation efforts in the state.

Natural Farming

Natural farming is an agricultural method that avoids synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms, focusing instead on soil health and biodiversity. It emphasizes the use of local resources such as cow dung, cow urine, and green manures. The method was popularized by Masanobu Fukuoka in Japan and adapted in India by various practitioners. Natural farming reduces input costs, enhances soil fertility, and promotes ecological balance. It is gaining popularity in India as an alternative to conventional farming, aligning with organic farming principles. The government supports natural farming to improve sustainability and reduce environmental impact.

Why in news?

PM Modi brought into light the benefits of natural farming and the growing faith of farmers and consumers in organic and natural agricultural practices.

Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve

Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve is located in the eastern Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, covering parts of Gondia and Gadchiroli districts. It spans over 1,400 square kilometres and is known for its rich biodiversity, including tigers, leopards, and various herbivores. The reserve is part of the Central Indian landscape, which is a critical habitat corridor for wildlife movement. It has dense forests and is a key area for conservation efforts targeting large mammals. The reserve has recently been proposed as the site for Maharashtra’s first elephant reserve due to increasing elephant migration from neighbouring states.

Why in news?

The Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve is in the spotlight as the Maharashtra government seeks approval from the Centre to declare part of this reserve an elephant reserve, marking the state’s first such protected area.

Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana)

Neelakurinji is a purplish flowering shrub endemic to the montane grasslands of southwest India, blooming once every 12 years. It grows up to three meters tall and is found at elevations between 1,340 and 2,600 meters. It is semelparous, meaning it flowers and fruits once before dying. The species is known for its synchronous mass blooming, which colors the landscape purplish blue. Its habitat spans five mountain landscapes with 34 subpopulations, mostly in the Western Ghats and one in the Eastern Ghats. It faces threats from habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change.

Why in news?

Neelakurinji was recently included on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, following the first global assessment confirming its threatened status due to habitat loss and ecological pressures.

Net Metering

Net metering is a billing mechanism that credits solar energy system owners for the electricity they add to the grid. Customers receive credits for excess power generated by rooftop solar panels, which can offset their electricity consumption during non-sunny periods. Policies vary by state, affecting compensation rates and eligibility. Changes in net metering rules can impact solar industry jobs and consumer incentives. California recently lowered its net metering rates, leading to a reduction in solar installation jobs due to decreased financial benefits for solar panel owners.

Why in news?

California’s reduction of net metering rates caused a loss of over 17,000 solar installation jobs, influencing overall clean energy employment figures in the 2023 report.

Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary

Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Lawngtlai district, Mizoram, in one of India’s easternmost protected regions. It features tropical semi-evergreen to moist evergreen forests dominated by Dipterocarpus species, palms, canes, and rattans. The sanctuary provides habitat for diverse flora and fauna, including newly discovered species like the Ngengpui bent-toed gecko. It forms part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, known for high endemism and species richness. The area is crucial for conservation due to its relatively undisturbed forests and serves as a refuge for many rare and threatened species.

Why in news?

The Ngengpui bent-toed gecko, a new species, was discovered in the Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, denoting the sanctuary’s rich biodiversity.

Nicobar Pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica)

The Nicobar Pigeon is the only living species in the genus Caloenas, found in the Nicobar Islands and parts of Southeast Asia. It is a ground-dwelling bird with iridescent green and bronze plumage and a distinctive white tail. It is classified as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss and hunting. The Nicobar Pigeon is considered the closest living relative of the extinct dodo and Rodriguez solitaire, providing key vital information about the evolutionary history of these birds. Its conservation is critical to preserving the lineage of island-endemic pigeons.

Why in news?

The Nicobar Pigeon was brought into light in the recent study on dodo and solitaire taxonomy, linking it to the extinct species and stressing its conservation importance.

Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)

Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) measures how effectively plants utilize available nitrogen to produce yield. It is calculated as the ratio of crop yield to nitrogen input from both natural and synthetic sources. High NUE means crops produce more output per unit of nitrogen, reducing fertilizer waste and environmental pollution. NUE varies widely among crop varieties and is influenced by genetics, soil conditions, and farming practices. Improving NUE is critical for sustainable agriculture, as nitrogen fertilizers contribute to greenhouse gases like nitrous oxide and water pollution. Research on NUE supports breeding crops that require less fertilizer while maintaining productivity.

Why in news?

The study found a five-fold variation in NUE among Indian rice varieties, denoting potential for breeding more efficient, less polluting crops.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy in PFAS Tracking

NMR spectroscopy is used to analyze molecular structures without breaking them apart. It detects the composition of carbon isotopes in molecules by exposing samples to strong magnetic fields and measuring emitted radio waves. This technique allows identification of unique isotope fingerprints in PFAS molecules, which conventional mass spectrometry cannot achieve due to PFAS’s unbreakable bonds. The isotope patterns correspond to manufacturing processes, enabling source tracing. Combining NMR with computational tools provides detailed molecular information, facilitating environmental tracking and potentially extending to fields like counterfeit drug detection and astrobiology.

Why in news?

The University of Texas team applied NMR spectroscopy to PFAS, creating a novel method to fingerprint and trace these chemicals, a breakthrough in environmental science published in Environmental Science & Technology.

Oceanic Tunnels in the Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean has two oceanic tunnels connecting it to other oceans – the Pacific Ocean tunnel and the Southern Ocean tunnel. The Pacific tunnel transports large volumes of warm water in the upper 500 meters annually into the Indian Ocean. In contrast, the Southern Ocean tunnel brings cooler waters below about 1 km depth. These tunnels influence the temperature and circulation patterns of the Indian Ocean, affecting monsoon dynamics and cyclogenesis. This dual input of warm and cold water is unique compared to other ocean basins and plays a critical role in the Indian Ocean’s climatic and oceanographic behavior.

Why in news?

The article marks how these oceanic tunnels contribute to the rapid warming of the Indian Ocean, impacting monsoon patterns and cyclone formation amid climate change.

Okjökull Glacier

Okjökull was a glacier in Iceland declared “dead” in 2019, the first glacier lost due to climate change. It once covered 15.5 square kilometers but melted completely because of rising temperatures and reduced snowfall. A memorial plaque was revealed at the site to mark its disappearance and warn of the fate of other Icelandic glaciers. Iceland’s main glaciers are predicted to vanish within 200 years if current warming trends continue. Okjökull’s loss symbolizes the rapid decline of glaciers worldwide, serving as a stark reminder of climate change’s tangible effects on natural landmarks.

Why in news?

Okjökull Glacier was memorialized in 2019 as the first glacier lost to global heating, denoting the cultural and environmental impact of glacier disappearance due to climate change.

Palm Oil and Deforestation in Malaysia

Malaysia is the world’s second-largest palm oil producer, with the industry linked to extensive deforestation, especially in Borneo and Sumatra. Palm oil cultivation has caused habitat loss for endangered species like orangutans. The European Union banned imports of goods linked to deforestation, increasing pressure on Malaysia to improve sustainability. Palm oil plantations replace tropical rainforests, which are critical for biodiversity and carbon storage. Conservation efforts include monitoring wildlife and protecting remaining forest areas, but balancing economic interests and environmental protection remains a challenge.

Why in news?

The EU’s ban on deforestation-linked imports and Malaysia’s palm oil sustainability concerns led to the controversial orangutan diplomacy proposal and its revision.

Pantanal Wetlands

The Pantanal is the world’s largest tropical wetland, spanning over 150,000 square kilometers across Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay. It is renowned for its rich biodiversity, hosting over 1,000 bird species and numerous mammals, reptiles, and fish. The Pantanal’s water levels fluctuate seasonally, with annual flooding essential for its ecosystem. It is also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The region is vulnerable to wildfires, which have intensified due to climate change, agricultural expansion, and drought. Fires in the Pantanal have increased in frequency and intensity, threatening its unique flora and fauna.

Why in news?

The Pantanal wetlands experienced devastating fires in 2024, worsened by human-induced climate change, increasing fire intensity by 40% and likelihood by four times.

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is a global climate pact adopted in 2015 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, compared to pre-industrial levels. Nearly 200 countries have committed to nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The agreement includes provisions for financial support to developing countries, transparency mechanisms, and periodic progress reviews. The US initially joined in 2016, withdrew under President Trump in 2020, and rejoined in 2021 under President Biden. The agreement emphasizes voluntary, non-binding commitments but relies on global cooperation to meet its goals.

Why in news?

The US’s commitment to the Paris Agreement contrasts with Trump’s 2016 withdrawal, and the Biden-Harris-Walz administration is expected to maintain or strengthen US participation.

Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

PFAS are a group of synthetic chemicals characterized by strong carbon-fluorine bonds, making them highly resistant to degradation. They are used in water-proofing, heat resistance, detergents, food packaging, and non-stick coatings. These chemicals accumulate in soil and organic matter, leading to persistent environmental contamination. PFAS molecules contain carbon isotopes bonded to fluorine, a structure rarely found in nature. Their durability causes them to be termed “forever chemicals,” as they do not break down easily. PFAS exposure has been linked to adverse health effects in humans and wildlife. Tracking these chemicals is difficult due to their strong molecular bonds.

Why in news?

Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin developed a method to trace PFAS origins and spread using magnetic fields and radio waves, aiding environmental management and regulation efforts by the EPA.

Periya Kalapet

Periya Kalapet is a coastal hamlet in Puducherry, located near the Bay of Bengal. It is traditionally a fishing village with a community dependent on marine resources. The area is part of a government initiative to install artificial reefs to boost fish breeding and protect the coastline. Periya Kalapet’s coastal waters are shallow and lie within five nautical miles from shore, making it suitable for reef installation. The village is involved in stakeholder workshops conducted by CMFRI to educate fishermen about sustainable fishing practices and benefits of artificial reefs for ecosystem restoration and livelihood improvement.

Why in news?

Periya Kalapet is one of the four coastal hamlets selected for artificial reef deployment by CMFRI to enhance fish breeding and coastal protection.

Pichavaram Mangroves

Pichavaram mangroves, located in Cuddalore district, are among the oldest and largest mangrove forests in India. These mangroves cover about 1,100 hectares and consist of over 40 species of mangrove plants. The area underwent restoration between 1987 and 1998, involving hydrodynamic studies and dredging to improve tidal flushing. Pichavaram mangroves act as a natural barrier against cyclones and tsunamis, having protected thousands during the 2004 tsunami. The forest also supports diverse fauna, including fish, birds, and reptiles. It is a popular eco-tourism spot, with boat rides through the intricate waterways of the mangrove forest.

Why in news?

Pichavaram mangroves are cited for their protective role during the 2004 tsunami and ongoing conservation efforts led by Tamil Nadu Forest Department and research institutions.

Pink Bollworm

The pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) is a destructive insect pest that primarily attacks cotton crops. It bores into cotton bolls, damaging fibers and reducing yields. Originating in Asia, it has spread worldwide, causing economic losses in cotton-growing regions. The pest has developed resistance to several insecticides and genetically modified Bt cotton varieties. Control measures include crop rotation, pheromone traps, and integrated pest management (IPM). The pink bollworm’s lifecycle includes egg, larva, pupa, and adult moth stages, with larvae causing the most damage. Its presence can delay cotton harvesting and increase production costs.

Why in news?

Farmers have reduced cotton sowing in 2024 due to risks from the pink bollworm and other factors, shifting to faster-maturing crops like maize and groundnut.

Point Bars and Cutbanks

Point bars and cutbanks are geomorphological features found on the inside and outside bends of meandering rivers, respectively. Point bars are depositional areas where sediment accumulates, forming gently sloping banks, while cutbanks are erosional zones with steep, often undercut banks. In Arctic rivers, mercury eroded from cutbanks during river migration is largely redeposited in point bars, creating a near balance in mercury stocks between these features. This sediment redistribution influences contaminant transport and storage in river systems. About these dynamics is crucial for predicting mercury movement in changing Arctic environments.

Why in news?

The study found that mercury eroded from riverbanks during migration is redeposited in point bars, affecting mercury transport in the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers amid permafrost thaw.

Polar Vortex

The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding both Earth’s poles, located in the stratosphere. It typically remains strong and stable during winter, trapping cold air over polar regions. The vortex is composed of cyclonic winds that spin counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Disruptions to the polar vortex can cause warm air to enter polar regions, leading to temperature anomalies. The weakening of the southern hemisphere polar vortex is a rare event, occurring roughly once every two decades. It influences weather patterns and temperature extremes globally.

Why in news?

The southern hemisphere polar vortex weakened in 2024, allowing warm air into Antarctica and causing record-breaking winter heatwaves.

Pole-to-Equator Mass Flux

Pole-to-equator mass flux refers to the movement of mass, particularly water from melting polar ice sheets, from the poles toward the equator. This redistribution of mass increases the Earth’s moment of inertia, causing the planet’s rotation to slow down. The phenomenon contributes to changes in Earth’s oblateness, or equatorial bulge. It affects the length of a day by adding milliseconds over centuries. This flux is a direct consequence of climate change-driven ice melt and has measurable impacts on geophysical processes like Earth’s rotation and polar motion. It is quantified using climate models and satellite data.

Why in news?

Scientists have linked pole-to-equator mass flux caused by melting polar ice to the slowing of Earth’s rotation, impacting timekeeping and technology reliant on precise timing.

Post-glacial uplift

Post-glacial uplift is the rise of land masses that were previously compressed under the weight of massive ice sheets during the last Ice Age. When the ice melts, the pressure on the Earth’s crust decreases, causing it to slowly rebound or rise. This process can continue for thousands of years after the ice retreats. In Antarctica, post-glacial uplift is occurring unusually fast, within decades, due to the squishy mantle beneath the ice sheet. The uplift affects local sea levels by changing land elevation and gravitational fields, influencing global sea-level rise patterns in complex ways.

Why in news?

Antarctica is rising from the ocean due to post-glacial uplift, impacting predictions of global sea-level rise and climate change models.

Prosopis juliflora

Prosopis juliflora is an invasive tree species introduced in India, particularly in the Banni grasslands of Gujarat, to combat desertification and provide firewood. Since its introduction in 1961, it has aggressively spread, transforming native grasslands into dense Prosopis woodlands. This invasion alters soil chemistry, reduces native grass cover, and disrupts habitats for grassland-specialist fauna. It contributes to woody encroachment and decreases biodiversity by outcompeting native plants and changing ecosystem dynamics. Prosopis juliflora’s dense thickets also hinder grazing and increase vulnerability of native species to predation.

Why in news?

The spread of Prosopis juliflora is cited as a major factor in the degradation of the Banni grasslands, worsening woody encroachment and threatening native biodiversity.

Pulicat Lake Mangrove Restoration

Pulicat Lake, historically called Pazhaverkadu, once had dense mangrove forests but suffered degradation due to Dutch fort construction in the 1600s and later urbanization. A community-driven reforestation effort started in 2012, supported by the Global Nature Fund and CReNIEO, initially planting over 5,000 mangrove saplings. However, the 2015 monsoon caused a flood that submerged the area for 10 days, destroying 90% of the new plants. Restoration continues, especially after an oil spill in December 2023 impacted the Ennore-Pulicat wetlands. Mangroves require both salt and fresh water, and prolonged saltwater submersion harms them, complicating restoration efforts.

Why in news?

Pulicat Lake’s mangrove restoration faced setbacks from the 2015 flood and a 2023 oil spill, prompting renewed conservation initiatives in the Ennore-Pulicat wetlands.

Radiocarbon (Carbon-14)

Radiocarbon, or carbon-14, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with two extra neutrons compared to the most common isotope, carbon-12. It is naturally produced in the upper atmosphere through cosmic ray interactions. Nuclear bomb tests during the 1950s and 1960s increased atmospheric radiocarbon levels, creating a “bomb pulse” that scientists use as a tracer in environmental and climate studies. Radiocarbon decays with a half-life of about 5,730 years, making it useful for dating organic materials up to around 50,000 years old. It bonds with oxygen to form CO2, which plants absorb during photosynthesis.

Why in news?

Radiocarbon levels from Cold War nuclear tests were used in a recent study to track how quickly plants absorb and release CO2, refining understanding of carbon cycling in climate models.

Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park and Wildlife Research Center (RGZP)

The Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park and Wildlife Research Center is located in Pune, Maharashtra. It was established in 1999 and spans over 130 hectares. The zoo houses over 1500 animals representing more than 150 species, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. It is known for its conservation efforts, especially for indigenous species like the Indian pangolin and the Indian star tortoise. The park also focuses on scientific research, breeding programs, and environmental education. RGZP has a veterinary hospital on site, which is crucial for the health management of captive animals, including parasitic infection control.

Why in news?

The RGZP was part of a study on seasonal prevalence of parasitic infections in captive zoo animals in Pune during 2021.

Ramsar Convention

The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty established in 1971 and effective from 1975, aimed at conserving wetlands of international importance. Named after the Iranian city of Ramsar where it was signed, the treaty now includes over 170 contracting parties and more than 2,600 designated sites worldwide. It focuses on sustainable use of wetlands, especially those critical for waterfowl habitat and biodiversity. The convention sets nine criteria for site designation, including support for endangered species and unique wetland types. It is administered by the Ramsar Secretariat under the UNESCO umbrella and promotes integrated management plans for wetland conservation.

Why in news?

The Ramsar Convention Secretariat approved the addition of two new Ramsar sites in Tamil Nadu, raising the state’s total to 18 internationally recognized wetlands.

Ramularia Blight Disease

Ramularia blight is a fungal disease caused by Ramularia species affecting fennel and other crops. It causes leaf spots, blight, and premature leaf fall, reducing photosynthesis and yield. The disease thrives in humid conditions and can spread rapidly in dense crop stands. Resistance to Ramularia blight is rare in fennel varieties, making the identification of resistant strains like RF-290 . The pathogen produces conidia that disperse via wind and rain. Effective management includes resistant varieties, crop rotation, and fungicide applications. Ramularia blight can cause yield losses up to 30% in severe outbreaks.

Why in news?

The new fennel variety RF-290 released by IISR is resistant to Ramularia blight, promising better yield and stability for farmers in multiple state of Indias.

Recirculatory Aquaculture System (RAS)

The Recirculatory Aquaculture System (RAS) is an advanced fish farming technology that recycles water within the system, minimizing water usage and environmental impact. It maintains optimal water quality by filtering and reusing water, allowing fish to grow in controlled conditions year-round. RAS reduces dependency on natural water bodies and mitigates risks from diseases and pollutants. It supports sustainable aquaculture by enabling higher stocking densities and efficient feed use. The system is energy-intensive but offers precise control over fish growth parameters, improving productivity and fish health. RAS is gaining adoption in India’s fisheries sector to boost sustainable fish production.

Why in news?

Prime Minister Modi will inaugurate fisheries projects incorporating Recirculatory Aquaculture System technology as part of ₹1,560 crores investment in Palghar district on August 30, 2024.

Resistant Kernel Approach

The resistant kernel approach is a spatial ecological modeling technique used to estimate animal movement and habitat connectivity. It calculates the likelihood of an animal moving through different landscape areas based on resistance values assigned to land cover types. Lower resistance indicates easier movement, while higher resistance indicates barriers. This method helps identify core habitats and corridors critical for species survival. It is particularly useful for species like the Sunda clouded leopard, which require connected habitats for breeding and hunting. The approach supports conservation planning by predicting how landscape changes affect animal dispersal and population viability.

Why in news?

Researchers applied the resistant kernel approach to model Sunda clouded leopard movements and identify priority areas for protection in Borneo’s forests.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is a common respiratory virus that causes infections of the lungs and respiratory tract. It primarily affects infants and young children but can also impact adults, especially the elderly or immunocompromised. RSV spreads through respiratory droplets and contaminated surfaces. Symptoms range from mild cold-like signs to severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia. The virus has seasonal peaks, often during the monsoon or winter months in tropical regions. There is no specific antiviral treatment, but supportive care is critical. Vaccines and monoclonal antibodies for RSV are under development or recently approved for high-risk groups.

Why in news?

RSV is brought into light due to its increased prevalence during the monsoon season, contributing to rising respiratory infections in Delhi-NCR amid excessive rainfall and humidity.

Right to a Clean, Healthy Environment Resolution (2022)

In 2022, 161 countries adopted a United Nations resolution recognizing the right to a clean, healthy environment. This resolution affirms environmental rights as fundamental human rights, obligating governments to protect ecosystems and reduce pollution. It marks global consensus on environmental justice, emphasizing international cooperation to address climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss. The resolution calls for increased support to low- and middle-income countries to implement policies ensuring clean air, water, and soil. It is a non-binding but influential framework guiding national and international environmental governance.

Why in news?

The resolution is referenced as a benchmark for holding governments accountable during the 2024 global elections to prioritize air pollution and environmental health policies.

Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary

Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, located in Andhra Pradesh, spans approximately 15.34 square kilometres and was established in 1988. It is one of the few protected areas dedicated to conserving the Great Indian Bustard and other grassland species. The sanctuary features dry deciduous forests and scrublands, providing crucial habitat for endangered birds and mammals. Rollapadu is known for its successful bustard conservation programs, including anti-poaching patrols and habitat management. It lies about 100 km from Siruguppa in Karnataka, and GIBs are believed to migrate between these areas seasonally. The sanctuary also supports species like blackbucks and wolves.

Why in news?

The Great Indian Bustards possibly migrated from Karnataka’s Siruguppa area to Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, prompting conservationists to monitor both locations closely.

Run-of-the-River Hydropower Projects

Run-of-the-river hydropower projects generate electricity by diverting part of a river’s flow through tunnels or channels without large reservoirs. They have smaller submergence areas and are considered less disruptive than storage dams but require extensive tunneling and blasting. These projects affect river ecology and local communities due to altered flow regimes and construction impacts. The Teesta River has a cascade of six such projects planned, including the 510 MW Teesta Stage V, which diverts water via a 17.5-kilometer tunnel. Despite being labeled low-impact, these projects have caused social and environmental issues in Sikkim.

Why in news?

The controversy over run-of-the-river projects on the Teesta River intensified after landslides and dam breaches caused damage and displacement, leading to calls for project cancellations and policy reviews.

Sakho Chu Glacial Lake

Sakho Chu is a glacial lake in Mangan District, Sikkim, with an estimated water volume of 25-27 million cubic metres. It is unique because it has no natural outlet, increasing the risk of sudden overflow or breach. The lake is contained by high moraine dams, which are unstable and prone to failure under pressure or seismic activity. An automatic weather station has been installed at Sakho Chu to provide real-time monitoring data on water levels and weather conditions. The lake is situated near Thangu village, the last inhabited area before the cold desert region, making it critical for local disaster preparedness.

Why in news?

Sakho Chu is one of five threatened glacial lakes under study by a Sikkim government expedition aiming to mitigate flood risks following recent GLOF events.

Samej Khad

Samej Khad is a small ravine located in the Rampur area of Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh. It is prone to sudden flooding due to cloudbursts in the surrounding hills. The terrain around Samej Khad is steep and forested, making rescue operations difficult during floods. The ravine channels water into larger rivers, contributing to rapid water level rises downstream. Local settlements near Samej Khad are vulnerable to flash floods, particularly during monsoon season. The area has limited early warning systems, increasing the risk to residents during extreme weather events. Samej Khad’s flooding in 2024 led to missing persons reports.

Why in news?

Samej Khad experienced severe flooding after a cloudburst in July 2024, leading to 36 people missing and extensive rescue operations in the Rampur area of Shimla district.

Sensor-Based Landslide Early Warning Systems

Sensor-based landslide early warning systems use instruments like inclinometers, piezometers, and rain gauges to monitor slope movement and rainfall intensity. These systems provide real-time data to predict landslide occurrence by detecting micro-movements or changes in soil moisture. They are typically installed in known landslide-prone areas to alert residents and authorities. While effective in localized monitoring, their predictive capacity is limited to specific sites and cannot cover all vulnerable slopes. In India, most systems rely heavily on rainfall thresholds rather than slope stability, reducing overall predictive accuracy. Expanding sensor deployment to at-risk but untriggered sites could improve disaster preparedness.

Why in news?

Experts brought into light the limitations and potential of sensor-based early warning systems in forecasting landslides during ongoing rescue efforts in Kerala and other affected regions.

Sentinel Monitoring

Sentinel monitoring is a public health surveillance system that collects data from selected sites or groups to track disease trends. It focuses on specific locations or populations, such as hospitals or clinics, to provide early warnings of outbreaks. The system is cost-effective and allows health authorities to monitor diseases like COVID-19 without testing the entire population. Sentinel sites report regularly, enabling timely detection of changes in infection rates. This method was used by the WHO to analyze COVID-19 positivity rates in 84 countries, providing critical data on the spread and evolution of the virus globally.

Why in news?

The WHO used sentinel monitoring data from 84 countries to report increasing COVID-19 positivity rates worldwide, denoting ongoing pandemic risks and the need for vigilance.

Shiveluch Volcano

Shiveluch is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Kamchatka, Russia. It stands at about 3,283 meters (10,771 feet) tall and has a history of explosive eruptions dating back thousands of years. The volcano features a lava dome that frequently collapses, causing pyroclastic flows. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. Shiveluch’s eruptions often produce ash columns reaching heights of over 10 kilometers. Its activity is closely monitored due to potential hazards to local populations and air traffic.

Why in news?

Shiveluch erupted following a 7.0 magnitude earthquake in Kamchatka, spewing ash up to 8 kilometers high and prompting aviation warnings.

Shola Grasslands

Shola grasslands are a unique high-altitude ecosystem found in the Western Ghats of India, characterized by a mosaic of stunted tropical montane forests (sholas) interspersed with rolling grasslands. These ecosystems harbor endemic species adapted to cool, moist conditions and are important for water conservation and biodiversity. Shola grasslands face threats from invasive species like eucalyptus, afforestation, and climate change. Their fragmented nature increases vulnerability to environmental changes. They support rare fauna and flora, including endemic birds and amphibians, and play important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the Western Ghats.

Why in news?

Shola grasslands are mentioned as a threatened habitat suffering from woody encroachment and invasive plantations, impacting biodiversity in southern India’s Western Ghats.

Similipal Tiger Reserve

The Similipal Tiger Reserve spans over 2,750 square kilometers in Mayurbhanj district, Odisha. It is part of the larger Similipal Biosphere Reserve and named after the Simul tree abundant in the area. The reserve hosts diverse species – over 1,076 plants, 55 mammals, 304 birds, and 60 reptiles. Its terrain includes dense forests, hills, and water bodies, creating an ideal habitat for tigers and prey like deer, wild boar, and bison. The reserve’s tiger population is small and isolated, increasing chances of inbreeding and rare genetic phenomena like pseudo-melanism.

Why in news?

Similipal Tiger Reserve is in the spotlight due to the rare black tiger sightings and the upcoming establishment of the world’s first melanistic tiger safari near Baripada, Odisha.

Sita Rama Lift Irrigation Project

The Sita Rama Lift Irrigation Project is designed to divert 67 tmcft of Godavari River water to irrigate large areas in Telangana. It aims to stabilize irrigation for 3.40 lakh acres and expand cultivation by an additional 2.60 lakh acres. The project involves complex infrastructure including multiple pump houses, distributary canals, and tunnels like Yatalakunta and Zloorupadu. It is managed under the oversight of the Godavari River Management Board. The project’s completion deadline is August 2026, with a budget escalation from ₹2,400 crore to ₹18,000 crore due to redesign and delays.

Why in news?

The project’s trial run of three pump houses was conducted in Bhadradri Kothagudem district, marking progress ahead of its inauguration planned for August 15, 2024.

Skewed Monsoon Distribution

The monsoon in India exhibits a “highly skewed” distribution pattern, meaning rainfall is unevenly spread both spatially and temporally. This irregularity affects crop growth by causing droughts in some regions and floods in others. Skewed monsoon distribution disrupts agricultural cycles, reduces yields, and increases vulnerability to supply shocks. Despite the 2020s marking a period of “normal monsoon” rainfall, the erratic distribution has intensified food inflation pressures. This phenomenon is linked to rising temperatures and climate change, which alter the monsoon’s timing and intensity, complicating traditional farming practices and contributing to endemic food inflation.

Why in news?

The RBI report emphasized skewed monsoon distribution as a key factor behind climate-induced supply shocks impacting food prices in India since 2020.

Slope-specific Landslide Early Warning Systems

Slope-specific landslide early warning systems use sensors and monitoring technology to detect ground movement and rainfall thresholds on vulnerable slopes. These systems provide localized alerts to predict landslides minutes to hours before they occur. They are expensive and technically challenging to implement, especially in complex mountainous terrain like Wayanad. Such systems rely on continuous data from inclinometers, piezometers, and rain gauges, combined with real-time analysis. Despite high costs, they are considered the most effective method for minimizing loss of life in landslide-prone areas by enabling timely evacuations and response.

Why in news?

The report on the Wayanad landslides brought into light the difficulty and importance of implementing slope-specific landslide early warning systems to prevent future casualties.

Solar Evaporation Ponds (SEPs)

Solar Evaporation Ponds (SEPs) are shallow, man-made basins used to evaporate water from contaminated liquid waste, leaving behind solid residues for easier disposal. At the Bhopal Union Carbide site, SEPs located north of the factory were found contaminated with heavy metals like manganese and nickel. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) in 2021 directed remediation of these ponds due to their environmental hazard. SEPs rely on solar energy for evaporation, making them cost-effective but vulnerable to leakage and groundwater contamination if not properly maintained. They have been historically used in chemical and pesticide industries for waste management.

Why in news?

The NGT ordered cleanup of SEPs at the Bhopal site after tests showed heavy metal contamination exceeding safe limits in groundwater.

Solar-Powered Tricycles for Persons with Disabilities

Solar-powered tricycles are three-wheeled vehicles equipped with solar panels to harness sunlight for electric propulsion. They provide an eco-friendly alternative to conventional mobility aids, reducing reliance on fossil fuels. These tricycles typically feature lightweight frames, battery storage, and motorized assistance for easier navigation. Designed for persons with disabilities, they improve accessibility and independence by enabling longer travel distances with less physical effort. Solar tricycles reduce carbon emissions and operational costs as they use renewable energy. Their adoption is increasing in regions with high solar insolation and limited electric vehicle infrastructure, combining sustainability with social inclusion.

Why in news?

The launch of solar-powered tricycles by AMTZ and CRC Nagpur marks a step towards sustainable, inclusive mobility solutions for individuals with disabilities in India.

Sonamura Water-Level Observation Site

Sonamura is one of three critical water-level observation stations on the Gumti River in Tripura. It monitors river water height and flow rates to predict flooding risks downstream, especially in Bangladesh. The station provides real-time data to both Indian and Bangladeshi authorities, facilitating cross-border flood management. Sonamura’s readings are crucial during monsoon seasons when the region experiences heavy rainfall. The presence of a second site, Sonamura 2, indicates the importance of this location in flood forecasting and water resource management for the trans-boundary river system.

Why in news?

Sonamura’s water-level data was cited by the Indian Ministry of External Affairs to explain the causes of flooding in Bangladesh, denoting ongoing bilateral cooperation in flood monitoring.

Sonar Fort

Sonar Fort, also known as Jaisalmer Fort, is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Built in 1156 AD by Rawal Jaisal, it is one of the largest fully preserved fortified cities in the world. The fort is constructed primarily from yellow sandstone, which gives it a golden hue, especially at sunset, hence the name “Golden Fort.” It houses numerous temples, palaces, and residential buildings inside its walls. The fort is unique as it is still inhabited by population. The walls have suffered damage due to recent heavy rainfall, causing partial collapses.

Why in news?

Sonar Fort’s walls collapsed due to unusually intense monsoon rainfall in Jaisalmer in 2024, denoting the impact of increased precipitation in this arid region.

South-West Monsoon and Food Inflation

The South-West Monsoon, occurring from June to September, is crucial for India’s agriculture, irrigating about 70% of the country’s farmland. Its performance directly affects crop yields and food prices. A normal monsoon leads to higher agricultural output, easing food inflation, while a weak monsoon can cause crop failures and price spikes. The monsoon’s impact on buffer stocks and supply chains also influences food inflation trends. It is closely monitored by policymakers to predict inflation and plan monetary policy.

Why in news?

RBI expects relief in food prices and inflation in the third quarter of 2024 if the South-West Monsoon supports farm activities adequately.

Species Recovery Plan (Marine Species)

A Species Recovery Plan is a strategic framework designed to restore and conserve threatened species populations. For marine species like horseshoe crabs, such plans involve habitat protection, population monitoring, threat mitigation, and legal enforcement. In India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change develops these plans upon expert recommendations. The plan for horseshoe crabs was urged in 2023 by experts to address declining populations due to destructive fishing and illegal trade. Recovery plans often include collaboration between government bodies, research institutions, and local communities to implement sustainable conservation actions over multiple years.

Why in news?

Experts urged the Union Ministry in 2023 to develop a Species Recovery Plan for horseshoe crabs, prompting a tagging and monitoring initiative along Odisha’s coast in 2024.

Spikemoss

Spikemosses belong to the genus Lycopodium and related genera, ancient vascular plants resembling mosses but with true roots and vascular tissue. They reproduce via spores, not seeds, and have been around for over 300 million years. Spikemoss spores are highly flammable and were historically used as flash powder in photography and pyrotechnics. They thrive in rocky, dry environments and form dense mats that help prevent soil erosion. Their spores contain oils that make them water-repellent. Spikemosses are often overlooked but play a vital role in tundra ecosystems by stabilizing soil and providing habitat for small insects.

Why in news?

Spikemoss spores were found in soil beneath Greenland’s ice sheet, indicating a past Arctic tundra ecosystem and supporting evidence that the ice sheet melted completely within the last million years.

Stress Bands in Coral Skeletons

Stress bands are distinct dark layers found in coral skeletons, formed during periods of environmental stress like heat or pollution. These bands record historical bleaching events and can be analyzed to reconstruct past ocean conditions. Stress bands form when corals expel their symbiotic algae, causing reduced growth and altered skeletal density. Scientists use them to date and assess the frequency and severity of bleaching over centuries. This method has revealed that mass bleaching events were rare before the 1980s but have increased sharply with climate change. Stress band analysis helps link coral health to long-term climate trends.

Why in news?

Researchers used stress bands from coral skeletons to confirm that the Great Barrier Reef’s recent bleaching events are unprecedented in the last 400 years.

Sub-Antarctic Islands

Sub-Antarctic islands such as Macquarie Island, Kerguelen Islands, and South Georgia are critical nodes for oceanic connectivity to Antarctica. Macquarie Island has the highest connectivity, with 0.8% of virtual particles released from these islands reaching Antarctica within three years. These islands are home to species like the southern bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica), which can raft long distances, carrying diverse marine fauna. The islands’ ecosystems act as stepping stones for species dispersal, influencing Antarctic biodiversity. They are remote, volcanic, and often have unique flora and fauna adapted to cold, harsh environments.

Why in news?

The study marks the role of sub-Antarctic islands in transporting non-native species to Antarctica via ocean currents and floating debris, increasing the risk of ecosystem disruption due to climate change and human activity.

Sunda Clouded Leopard

The Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) is a medium-sized wild cat native to Borneo and Sumatra. It has distinctive large cloud-like spots on its fur, which provide camouflage in dense forests. It is the top predator in Borneo’s forests and plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance. The species is classified as vulnerable, with an estimated population of only about 3,800 individuals remaining. It is arboreal, skilled at climbing trees, and has the longest canine teeth relative to body size among living cats. Habitat loss due to deforestation is its primary threat.

Why in news?

A new study marks the need to protect high-risk areas rather than current protected zones to better conserve the Sunda clouded leopard and its habitat in Borneo.

Temporary Climate Refugees in the Western Ghats

Temporary climate refugees are people displaced intermittently due to extreme weather events linked to climate change, particularly in landslide-prone areas of the Western Ghats. Unlike permanent refugees, these individuals relocate temporarily to relatives or safer locations during periods of heavy rainfall or disasters. This phenomenon has increased with rising extreme rainfall events, such as the 572mm in 48 hours recorded in Mundakkai before the 2024 landslide. These refugees face uncertainty regarding long-term resettlement, with many reluctant to move far from their communities. The term reflects emerging challenges in disaster management and climate adaptation strategies.

Why in news?

The 2024 Wayanad landslide raised the number of temporary climate refugees, exposing gaps in rehabilitation and relocation policies in Kerala.

Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS)

Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS) refers to the total amount of water held in all continental storage compartments, including ice caps, glaciers, snow cover, soil moisture, groundwater, surface water bodies, and biomass. It is important metric for understanding regional and global hydrological cycles. TWS changes are commonly estimated using gravity satellites by measuring the total terrestrial mass storage (TMS) change, assuming sediment transport is negligible. However, sediment transport can affect these estimates, especially in regions with high erosion rates like the Tibetan Plateau, leading to potential overestimations of water loss by up to 10% or more.

Why in news?

Recent research quantified sediment transport’s impact on gravity satellite-based TWS estimates on the Tibetan Plateau, revealing substantial overestimation of water loss in major headwater basins like the Indus and Yarkant rivers.

Thanthonni Thuruth

Thanthonni Thuruth is a small island situated in Kochi, Kerala, inhabited by approximately 60 families primarily engaged in fishing. The island is nearly 200 years old and lacks direct road connectivity, relying on boats and ferries for transport to the mainland. It forms part of the Mulavukad panchayat and is included in the Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA) jurisdiction. The island is notable for its traditional lifestyle and marine-based economy. Its inclusion in the Carbon Neutral Goshree Campaign aims to make it the first fully solar-powered island in India, emphasizing sustainable energy and environmental conservation.

Why in news?

Thanthonni Thuruth is in the news for its upcoming transition to being the first island in India to rely solely on solar power for household energy needs under the Carbon Neutral Goshree Campaign.

Thaw Slumps

Thaw slumps are a type of landslide occurring in permafrost regions when ice-rich soil thaws rapidly, causing the ground to collapse and slide downhill. They can expose deep layers of sediment, releasing trapped contaminants like mercury. Thaw slumps often form adjacent to rivers, increasing sediment and pollutant loads downstream. These features can be several meters deep and hundreds of meters wide, evolving rapidly during warm seasons. Thaw slumps contribute to landscape change in Arctic environments and influence river sediment dynamics by mobilizing large volumes of soil and organic material. Their activity is closely linked to climate warming and permafrost degradation.

Why in news?

Thaw slumps near the Mackenzie River in Canada have been shown to increase suspended mercury in Arctic rivers due to permafrost thawing, denoting their role in releasing toxic mercury into ecosystems.

Thermal Inversions

Thermal inversion occurs when a layer of warm air settles above cooler air near the ground, trapping pollutants and causing air quality to worsen. This phenomenon disrupts normal atmospheric circulation and prevents vertical mixing of air. Thermal inversions are common in valleys and basins during winter when surface cooling is rapid. They can last from hours to days, increasing concentrations of particulate matter like PM2.5. In urban areas, thermal inversions exacerbate smog and respiratory problems. Monitoring thermal inversions is crucial for air quality forecasting and public health advisories.

Why in news?

The reduction in thermal inversions in 2022 was a key factor in India’s 19.3% drop in particulate pollution levels, improving air quality and life expectancy.

Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) Regulations of 2007

The Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) Regulations of 2007 is a South African legal framework designed to regulate the trade, possession, and hunting of species listed as threatened or protected. It sets standards for the management and conservation of these species, including prohibitions on hunting practices such as hunting sedated animals. The regulations aim to prevent exploitation and ensure sustainable use of wildlife resources. Violations of TOPS can result in legal penalties. The law is part of South Africa’s National Environmental Management – Biodiversity Act (NEMBA) and helps align national conservation efforts with international wildlife protection agreements.

Why in news?

Illegal hunting of sedated lions in South African captive breeding facilities violates the TOPS Regulations, denoting enforcement challenges amid the country’s lion farming phase-out.

Thwaites Glacier

Thwaites Glacier is a large, rapidly retreating glacier in West Antarctica, roughly the size of Florida. It is considered one of the most unstable and fastest-changing glaciers on Earth. Its floating ice shelf acts as a buttress, slowing the glacier’s flow into the ocean. Loss of this ice shelf would accelerate ice flow and potentially destabilize the glacier. Thwaites holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by about 65 centimeters if fully melted. The glacier’s retreat is influenced by warm ocean currents melting its base and structural weaknesses in the ice. It is a key focus of climate research.

Why in news?

Thwaites Glacier was central to recent simulations assessing the risk of rapid ice loss and its contribution to sea-level rise under different ice shelf collapse scenarios.

Thyanbo Glacial Lake

The Thyanbo Glacial Lake is located in Nepal’s Khumbu region, near the village of Thame. Before its outburst on August 16, 2024, the lake covered approximately 0.05 square kilometres. The lake’s sudden outburst caused flooding, damaging 14 properties including a school, health centre, five hotels, and seven houses. It is one among the many glacial lakes in the Hindu Kush Himalayas that are expanding due to climate change, increasing the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). Satellite imagery from the European Space Agency’s Copernicus program has tracked its changing size over recent years.

Why in news?

The Thyanbo Glacial Lake burst on August 16, 2024, causing flooding and damage in the Thame village, raising alarm over increasing GLOF risks due to climate change in the Himalayas.

Tipaimukh Dam

The Tipaimukh Dam is a proposed hydroelectric project on the Barak River in Manipur. The Barak River splits into the Surma and Kushiara rivers upon entering Bangladesh. The dam aims to generate power but is expected to reduce water flow downstream during dry seasons, affecting agriculture in Bangladesh. Bangladesh fears it will disrupt Boro paddy cultivation in the Haor basin. The dam site lies near the India-Bangladesh border and has faced protests from Bangladesh due to potential ecological and economic impacts. Construction has been delayed amid diplomatic tensions and environmental concerns.

Why in news?

The dam’s construction has reignited water disputes between India and Bangladesh, with Bangladesh opposing it due to concerns over reduced water flow affecting agriculture and ecosystems downstream.

Transmembrane Aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep) Gene Mutation

The black tiger’s distinctive coat pattern in Similipal is caused by a mutation in the Transmembrane Aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep) gene. This mutation results in pseudo-melanism, characterized by thicker, closer stripes, not full melanism (entirely black coat). The mutation is rare and linked to inbreeding within the isolated tiger population. Pseudo-melanism differs genetically and visually from true melanism, which is caused by other genetic factors. The Taqpep gene also influences coat patterns in other species, such as domestic cats. This mutation’s expression in Similipal tigers marks genetic bottlenecks in small populations.

Why in news?

Researchers from the National Centre for Biological Sciences studied this mutation to understand the genetic basis of the black tiger’s unique appearance in Similipal.

Transmission schemes for renewable integration in India

India has announced transmission schemes to integrate 66.5 GW of renewable energy generation capacity across key states including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. These schemes involve upgrading and expanding the power grid infrastructure to manage the variable nature of solar and wind energy, reduce curtailment, and improve grid stability. Transmission projects are in various stages of development to enable efficient evacuation of power from renewable-rich zones to demand centers. Effective transmission is critical to meeting India’s renewable energy targets and ensuring reliable power supply.

Why in news?

Transmission schemes were brought into light as part of efforts to support large-scale renewable capacity additions and grid integration in leading state of Indias.

Tso Rolpa Lake

Tso Rolpa is one of the largest and most potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Nepal, situated in the Rolwaling Valley near the Tibetan border. It covers around 1.5 square kilometres and has been closely monitored due to its high outburst flood risk. Created by glacial meltwater dammed by moraine debris, Tso Rolpa’s volume and water pressure have increased with warming temperatures, raising concerns about dam failure. Nepalese authorities and ICIMOD have implemented early warning systems and structural reinforcement projects to reduce the risk of a catastrophic GLOF from this lake.

Why in news?

Tso Rolpa is brought into light as a major glacial lake of concern in the Hindu Kush Himalayas due to its potential to cause devastating floods amid increasing glacial melt and climate change.

Unintended Hybridisation

Unintended hybridisation refers to the accidental genetic mixing between targeted organisms and non-target organisms (NTOs) due to gene editing or genetic pesticide exposure. This phenomenon can cause gene flow beyond intended species, impacting 12 of 18 studied species including humans, cattle, insects, and crops. It can disrupt normal biological functions by altering critical pathways such as cancer regulation and hormone metabolism in humans, and immune responses or nervous system functions in animals and plants. This process raises concerns about ecological balance and species health when gene editing is applied outside controlled lab environments.

Why in news?

Unintended hybridisation is brought into light in a study warning about ecological risks from outdoor gene-editing pesticides potentially affecting multiple species in farming environments.

Urban Heat Island Effect

The urban heat island (UHI) effect occurs when urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activities and infrastructure. Pavements, buildings, and roads absorb and retain heat, raising local temperatures. Light-colored surfaces like concrete reflect more sunlight, reducing heat absorption, whereas dark asphalt absorbs more heat. White-topping with concrete overlays can mitigate UHI by increasing surface reflectivity, lowering ambient temperatures. This effect influences energy consumption, air quality, and human health in cities. UHI mitigation is a growing focus in urban planning and infrastructure development.

Why in news?

White-topping national highways in India is expected to reduce the urban heat island effect by increasing road reflectivity and lowering heat absorption, contributing to environmental and energy benefits.

Vaccine-derived Poliovirus Type 2

Vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (VDPV2) emerges when the weakened strain of poliovirus used in oral polio vaccines mutates and regains neurovirulence. Unlike wild poliovirus, VDPV2 can cause outbreaks in under-immunized populations. It replicates only in humans and spreads primarily via the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water. VDPV2 outbreaks have occurred in regions with disrupted vaccination programs. The virus can cause paralysis similar to wild poliovirus. Its detection in sewage indicates ongoing transmission. Global eradication efforts focus on maintaining high immunization coverage to prevent VDPV2 emergence and spread, especially in fragile or conflict-affected areas where healthcare access is limited.

Why in news?

VDPV2 was detected in Gaza’s sewage amid ongoing conflict and deteriorating healthcare, prompting concerns of a polio outbreak and vaccination campaigns by Israeli forces and WHO efforts to contain its spread.

Vandalur Reserve Forest – Selaiyur Corridor

The corridor between Vandalur Reserve Forest and Selaiyur in East Tambaram is a wildlife passageway facilitating the movement of spotted deer and other species. Wildlife corridors help maintain genetic diversity and population stability by connecting fragmented habitats. This corridor is crucial for free-ranging herds of spotted deer in Chennai, allowing them to move between forest patches and urban areas safely. Such corridors reduce human-wildlife conflict and support species survival in urban landscapes. More corridors may exist in Chennai, denoting the need for mapping and conservation planning.

Why in news?

Recent reports show the movement of spotted deer through the Vandalur-Selaiyur corridor, emphasizing the importance of such routes for urban wildlife management.

Vellarimala Hill Region

The Vellarimala hill region is part of the Western Ghats in Kerala, known for its rugged terrain and rich biodiversity. It receives an average annual rainfall of 3,000 mm, contributing to dense forests and unique ecosystems. The region experienced 572 mm of rain in just 48 hours during the recent disaster, triggering a massive landslide. It is less known compared to other Western Ghats areas but is ecologically . The hills form part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and support several endemic species. Its steep slopes and fragile geology make it highly susceptible to landslides during intense rainfall events.

Why in news?

The Vellarimala hill region in Wayanad received unprecedented rainfall in August 2024, causing a devastating landslide that wiped out several villages and contributed to over 350 deaths nationwide.

Vertical Integrated Vapour Transport (IVT)

Vertical Integrated Vapour Transport (IVT) measures the total amount of water vapor transported vertically through the atmosphere, expressed in kilograms per meter per second. It is used to identify and quantify atmospheric rivers by detecting corridors with at least 2 cm of precipitable water. IVT values have increased in India since the 1950s, indicating stronger atmospheric rivers. The highest increases were observed in peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic Plain, regions prone to severe floods. IVT is crucial for meteorologists to forecast intense rainfall events linked to ARs and assess flood risks.

Why in news?

IVT data helped scientists confirm the strengthening of atmospheric rivers over India, explaining the rise in intense monsoon rainfall and flooding events like those in Kerala in 2024.

Vertical Lift Spillway Gates

The Tungabhadra dam uses vertical lift spillway gates, which are large gates that move vertically on rollers embedded in the dam’s masonry to control water discharge. These gates are operated from an overhead bridge using chains or cables. Each gate measures about 60 feet by 20 feet and weighs approximately 20 tonnes. The gates regulate reservoir water levels by allowing controlled water release. The failure of one such gate (No. 19) occurred when a chain link broke, causing the gate to be swept away by water. Similar gates with steel cable operation are used in the Alamatti dam.

Why in news?

One of the 33 vertical lift spillway gates at the Tungabhadra dam was washed away after a chain link broke, prompting emergency repairs and flood warnings.

Vishwamitri River

The Vishwamitri River originates from the Pavagadh hills in Panchmahal district, Gujarat, and flows through Vadodara before draining into the Gulf of Khambhat. It is a seasonal river supporting population of mugger crocodiles. The river faces heavy pollution from chemical industries in Vadodara’s urban zones, resulting in degraded water quality. Local rural communities depend on it for daily chores and potable water. The Vishwamitri’s crocodile population is affected by urbanization and pollution, making it a critical site for studying human-wildlife conflict and environmental stress impacts on wildlife.

Why in news?

The Vishwamitri River’s polluted urban stretches are linked to elevated stress levels in resident mugger crocodiles, contributing to increased human-crocodile conflict incidents in Vadodara.

Vraja and Vrindavana

Vraja is an ancient region in northern India, historically associated with Krishna’s childhood and cowherding communities. It became ecologically degraded due to overuse by herdsmen, as described in the Harivamsha. Vrindavana, located nearby, is depicted as a lush, sacred forest abundant with fruits, water, and Kadamba trees, where Krishna relocated the cowherds to escape the wolf menace. The name Vrindavana means forest of tulsi (holy basil) and is a major pilgrimage site . The story marks early awareness of environmental degradation and habitat shifts, linking cultural geography with ecological concerns in Hindu mythology.

Why in news?

The migration from Vraja to Vrindavana narrated in the Harivamsha is used to illustrate ancient environmental degradation and human displacement, mirroring modern ecological and wildlife conflicts in Uttar Pradesh.

Wastewater Testing for SARS-CoV-2

Wastewater testing involves analyzing sewage samples to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA, providing an indirect measure of community infection levels. This method can reveal virus prevalence before clinical cases are reported, as infected individuals shed viral particles in feces. It is a non-invasive, cost-effective tool for tracking COVID-19 trends and detecting new variants. In the US, wastewater analysis showed virus spread to be two to 20 times higher than reported case data, indicating under-detection. This approach helps public health officials anticipate outbreaks and allocate resources efficiently.

Why in news?

The United Nations brought into light wastewater testing data revealing that actual COVID-19 transmission rates in the US exceed official case numbers by up to 20 times, signaling underreported spread.

Waterspout

A waterspout is a tornado-like column of rotating air over a body of water, typically forming in tropical or subtropical regions. Waterspouts can be tornadic, associated with severe thunderstorms, or fair-weather types that form in lighter winds. They usually range from 50 to 1,000 feet in diameter and can reach wind speeds of up to 100 mph. Waterspouts are capable of damaging boats and coastal structures and can move onshore, causing damage on land. They are less common than land tornadoes but pose hazards to marine navigation.

Why in news?

Eyewitnesses near Porticello reported seeing a waterspout shortly before the Bayesian yacht sank, making it a possible factor in the disaster.

Wayanad Landslide

The Wayanad landslide occurred in Kerala’s Wayanad district in August 2024, killing over 300 people and destroying entire villages. The disaster was triggered by intense monsoon rainfall exacerbated by atmospheric rivers combined with land-use changes favoring plantations over natural forests. Wayanad is a hilly region in the Western Ghats known for its biodiversity and tea and spice plantations. Landslides in this area are common during heavy rains due to steep slopes and deforestation. The 2024 landslide is one of the deadliest in Kerala’s history, denoting the vulnerability of mountainous regions to climate-induced extreme weather.

Why in news?

The Wayanad landslide is a recent catastrophic event caused by unusual monsoon intensity linked to climate change and atmospheric rivers, drawing attention to disaster preparedness in the region.

Weed Research Directorate, Jabalpur

The Weed Research Directorate in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, is a specialized government research institution focused on the study and management of invasive and noxious weeds. It breeds biological control agents like Cyrtobagous salviniae and develops integrated weed management strategies. The directorate conducts trials, monitors environmental impacts, and collaborates with local communities for sustainable weed control. It also cultivates host plants in controlled tankers to maintain populations of biological agents. This institution plays a key role in ecological restoration projects across central India, particularly in combating invasive species affecting agriculture and fisheries.

Why in news?

The Weed Research Directorate bred and supplied the insect Cyrtobagous salviniae for the successful biological control of Salvinia molesta in the Sarani Reservoir and other affected lakes.

West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS)

The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is a massive ice body covering West Antarctica, containing enough ice to raise global sea levels by approximately 3.3 meters if it fully collapses. Unlike the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, WAIS rests mostly on bedrock below sea level, making it vulnerable to warm ocean water intrusion. Its stability is threatened by climate change, with potential collapse triggering irreversible sea-level rise over centuries or millennia. WAIS dynamics involve complex interactions between ice flow, ocean melting, and bedrock topography. It is a critical system studied for understanding future global sea-level scenarios.

Why in news?

WAIS is discussed in the context of climate risk due to its potential to contribute to sea-level rise and the uncertainties surrounding its rate of ice loss.

Wetland Permafrost

Wetland permafrost is frozen ground found in wetland ecosystems containing large amounts of organic carbon from dead plants and animals accumulated over hundreds of thousands of years. When temperatures rise, this permafrost thaws, releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere as methane and carbon dioxide. This process is a natural source of methane but is accelerated by climate change, creating a feedback loop that worsens global warming. Wetland permafrost is especially prevalent in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. The thawing of these soils poses risk to global methane levels and climate stability.

Why in news?

Rising global temperatures are causing wetland permafrost to thaw, releasing methane and CO2, contributing to climate change and increasing the urgency to control methane emissions.

Wheat Holiday

A “wheat holiday” is a government-imposed ban on wheat cultivation in a specific area to prevent the spread of wheat blast disease. In West Bengal, a three-year wheat holiday was announced along the border with Bangladesh, prohibiting wheat farming within 5 km of the border. This measure aimed to stop the fungus from spreading via infected seeds or spores. The ban led to large-scale crop destruction by burning infected fields and caused economic hardship for farmers. The wheat holiday was lifted in most villages by 2022, but some border areas extended the ban due to persistent infections.

Why in news?

West Bengal imposed a wheat holiday after wheat blast outbreaks near the Bangladesh border to contain the fungal disease and protect wheat crops in India.

White-topping

White-topping is a pavement rehabilitation technique where a concrete overlay is placed on top of an existing bituminous (asphalt) pavement. The overlay thickness in thin white-topping ranges from 100 to 200 mm. It enhances the lifespan of flexible pavements by 20-25 years and reduces life-cycle costs compared to bituminous overlays. White-topping improves road durability, reduces vehicle fuel consumption, and lowers carbon emissions. Its light color reflects more light, reducing urban heat island effects and improving nighttime visibility. This technique is widely used in developed countries but is newly adopted in India for national highways.

Why in news?

India plans to adopt thin white-topping to strengthen ageing national highways, aiming to extend pavement life, reduce maintenance costs, and improve environmental and safety outcomes on the road network.

Woody Encroachment

Woody encroachment is the process where trees and shrubs invade open ecosystems such as grasslands and savannahs, converting them into more densely wooded habitats. It leads to ecosystem homogenisation, reducing biodiversity by suppressing grasses and altering soil and faunal associations. This phenomenon is driven by factors like fire suppression, grazing reduction, increased atmospheric CO2, and climate variations. It is widespread globally, with different drivers in different continents – fire suppression in South America, and CO2 and rainfall changes in Africa and Australia. Woody encroachment threatens many endemic species by transforming their natural habitats.

Why in news?

Woody encroachment is brought into light due to its role in the decline of grassland birds and biodiversity loss in savannahs and grasslands worldwide, as reported in recent ecological studies including those in India and Africa.

Zika Virus

The Zika virus was first identified in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda. It is primarily transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which also spread dengue and chikungunya. The virus causes mild symptoms like fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis, usually lasting less than a week. Infection during pregnancy can cross the placental barrier, leading to microcephaly and other fetal brain abnormalities. There is no specific antiviral treatment; management is symptomatic. Sexual transmission is possible, making preventive measures like condom use important. The virus gained global attention during outbreaks in the Americas starting in 2015.

Why in news?

Pune city reported 73 confirmed Zika virus cases since June 2024, including 26 pregnant women, raising concerns about birth defects and prompting intensified mosquito control efforts.

History (India / World) & Culture

Bandhani Print

Bandhani is an ancient Indian tie-dye technique involving plucking cloth with fingernails into tiny bindings to create patterns. Originating over 5,000 years ago, it is especially popular in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The process involves tying small knots on fabric before dyeing, resulting in intricate dots and designs. Traditionally, natural dyes like indigo and turmeric were used. Bandhani patterns often symbolize auspiciousness, fertility, and protection. It is commonly worn during festivals, weddings, and religious ceremonies. The craft requires skilled artisans and can take several days to complete a single piece.

Why in news?

In 2023, PM Modi wore a multi-coloured Bandhani print safa during his Independence Day address, denoting India’s artisanal heritage.

Basholi Paintings

Basholi paintings are a distinctive style of Indian miniature painting that originated in the Basholi region of Jammu and Kashmir during the 17th century. They are known for their vibrant use of primary colors, especially red, yellow, and green, and feature bold, expressive forms with strong outlines. The themes often include Hindu mythology, romantic tales, and local folklore. Basholi art is characterized by a naïve and rustic aesthetic, differing from the refined Mughal style. These paintings were traditionally created on paper and cloth using natural pigments. The Basholi style influenced other Pahari schools of painting in the Himalayan region.

Why in news?

Mentioned in the context of Indian art heritage rediscovery during the 1948 Exhibition of Indian Art, denoting its raw colors and folk innocence as appreciated by MF Husain.

Heritage Blocks in Majuli

Heritage Blocks in Majuli refer to designated protected zones around Satras (Vaishnavite monasteries) and other cultural institutions on the world’s largest river island in Assam. These blocks aim to preserve the unique religious, cultural, and ecological landscape of Majuli, which is home to several centuries-old Satras established by Srimanta Sankardev and his disciples. The blocks restrict land transfer to indigenous inhabitants to prevent encroachment and cultural dilution. Majuli’s Satras are centers of Assamese neo-Vaishnavism, art, dance, and literature. The island faces threats from erosion and demographic changes, making Heritage Blocks crucial for conservation efforts.

Why in news?

The Assam government’s bill proposes Heritage Blocks in Majuli to regulate land transactions and protect the island’s religious and cultural institutions as part of efforts to secure UNESCO World Heritage status.

Kanwariyas

Kanwariyas are Hindu devotees of Lord Shiva who undertake an annual pilgrimage called the Kanwar Yatra. They carry sacred water from the Ganges River to offer at Shiva temples, especially during the month of Shravan (July-August). The pilgrimage involves walking long distances, often barefoot, and is marked by singing hymns and chanting “Bol Bam.” Though Kanwariyas primarily travel to Haridwar and other Shiva temples, many also visit Kedarnath. Their journey is both a religious act and a social event, involving millions of participants annually. The Kanwar Yatra has faced logistical challenges due to large crowds and weather-related hazards.

Why in news?

Kanwariyas were returning from the Kedarnath pilgrimage during the heavy rains and floods around July 31, 2024, contributing to the complexity of rescue and relief operations.

Kappiri Muthappan

Kappiri Muthappan is a demigod figure rooted in the Afro-Indian-Portuguese cultural mythology associated with Kochi Fort, Kerala. He is believed to guard hidden treasures left by Portuguese rulers during their colonial presence in India. The legend portrays Kappiri as a supernatural protector whose presence is central to local folklore. The myth is often linked to the syncretism of African, Indian, and Portuguese traditions in Kerala, reflecting the region’s colonial and cultural history. Kappiri’s story has inspired various literary and cinematic works, symbolizing the fusion of diverse cultural identities in the coastal region.

Why in news?

The myth of Kappiri Muthappan is central to the plot of the film ‘BarrozThe Guardian of D’Gama’s Treasure’ and related literary disputes over copyright and story adaptation.

Koder House

The Koder House in Kochi was built by Samuel Koder Sr. (1869-1941), a prominent Paradesi Jewish leader. It later became a boutique hotel. Samuel Koder Jr. (1908-1994) ran the Cochin Electric Company from the 1940s to the late 1970s before it was acquired by Kerala State Electricity Board. The Koders were influential in Kerala’s Jewish community and trade. Samuel Jr. was recognized internationally as an authority on Kerala Jewish history. The house stands as a symbol of the Paradesi Jews’ economic and cultural prominence in Kochi.

Why in news?

The Koders represent the legacy of Kerala’s Jewish community, which has diminished drastically following migration to Israel and other countries.

Lord Louis Mountbatten

Lord Louis Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of British India, appointed in February 1947 to oversee the transition of power. He advanced the date of Indian independence from June 30, 1948, to August 15, 1947, due to escalating communal violence. Mountbatten was also the Supreme Allied Commander of the Southeast Asia Command during World War II and signed the formal Japanese surrender of Singapore on September 4, 1945. His choice of August 15 for independence coincided with the second anniversary of Japan’s surrender, symbolizing a link to imperial pride rather than nationalist sentiment.

Why in news?

Mountbatten’s decision to advance the independence date and select August 15 links the timing of Indian and Pakistani independence with historical events from World War II and British imperial strategy.

Malabar Jews (Cochin Jews)

The Malabar Jews, also known as Cochin Jews, trace their origins to around the 10th century BCE, possibly linked to King Solomon’s era. They initially settled in Cranganore (now Kodungallur) and received copper plate grants from local Hindu rulers around 1000 CE, granting them economic and ceremonial privileges. Following Portuguese arrival in the 16th century, many moved south to Cochin (Kochi), where the local king welcomed them. Unlike Paradesi Jews, Malabar Jews integrated deeply into local society and maintained synagogues, some of which still exist as protected monuments.

Why in news?

The Malabar Jewish community is nearly extinct in Kerala, with only 14 members remaining, prompting conservation efforts for their synagogues.

Moidams at Charaideo

Moidams are ancient burial mounds located in Charaideo, Assam, serving as royal tombs of the Ahom dynasty rulers who reigned from the 13th to the 19th century. These earthen burial sites are unique for their architectural style blending indigenous and Tai-Ahom cultural elements. The site is considered sacred and is protected as a cultural heritage monument. Archaeological excavations have revealed funerary artifacts and relics that provide insight into Ahom funerary customs and socio-political history. Charaideo is often called the “Mekong Valley of the East” due to its historical importance and is a candidate for UNESCO World Heritage status.

Why in news?

The Assam government aims to replicate the protection given to Moidams by restricting land transactions around other heritage sites, including Majuli, to secure their heritage status and promote UNESCO World Heritage recognition.

Namdhari Sect

The Namdhari sect was founded by Satguru Ram Singh on Baisakhi in 1857. It is a Sikh reformist movement emphasizing social reform and resistance to British colonial rule. Namdharis believe Ram Singh is still alive and will return, and mourn him by wearing white. They recognize the Guru Granth Sahib as the supreme scripture but also believe in a living human Guru. The sect strictly observes teetotalism and abstains from tea and coffee. Their headquarters, Bhaini Sahib, is in Ludhiana near Ram Singh’s birthplace. Namdharis regard the cow as sacred and have deras in Punjab, Haryana, and abroad.

Why in news?

The Namdhari sect is in the news due to violent clashes between two rival factions in Haryana’s Sirsa district over land ownership and leadership succession disputes.

Namghar

Namghars are traditional Assamese community prayer halls associated with the Ekasarana tradition of Vaishnavism founded by Srimanta Sankardev in the 15th-16th century. They function as centers for religious worship, cultural activities, and community gatherings. Namghars house sacred artifacts and scriptures and serve as venues for the performance of Bhaona, a form of devotional theater. Architecturally, they are simple structures emphasizing communal participation over elaborate design. Namghars play a vital role in preserving Assamese cultural identity and social cohesion, especially among indigenous and tribal communities. They are often protected as heritage sites due to their religious and socio-cultural significance.

Why in news?

The Assam government’s new legislation protects land within 5 km of Namghars declared as iconic heritage institutions, restricting land sales to families residing there for three generations or more to preserve cultural identity.

Paradesi Jews

The Paradesi Jews migrated to India in the 15th and 16th centuries from the Iberian Peninsula, fleeing persecution by Catholic rulers of Spain and Portugal. They settled mainly on the Malabar coast and in Madras (now Chennai). The Paradesi Jews were involved in the spice trade in Kerala and the Golconda diamond trade in Madras. They adopted Malayalam and local customs but maintained a distinct identity, refusing intermarriage with the older Malabar Jewish community. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, built in 1568 CE, is one of the oldest synagogues in the Commonwealth.

Why in news?

The death of Queenie Hallegua, the last woman of Kerala’s Paradesi Jewish community, marks the dwindling presence of this historic group in India.

Patola Textiles

Patola is a double ikat woven textile from Gujarat, known for its complex dyeing and weaving process where both warp and weft threads are resist-dyed before weaving. These textiles feature intricate geometric and floral patterns and vibrant colors, traditionally made from silk. Patola weaving requires months of preparation and is considered a symbol of wealth and status. Originating from the Patan region, Patola sarees were historically worn by royalty and wealthy merchants. The technique is rare and labor-intensive, making authentic Patola textiles highly prized and collectible.

Why in news?

Included in the 1948 exhibition as example of Indian textile heritage, showcasing the country’s rich tradition in fabric arts.

Prakara

Prakara is an outer enclosure or compound wall surrounding a Hindu temple, often forming a protective boundary. It is usually constructed in concentric layers, with multiple prakaras in large temples. The prakara may contain subsidiary shrines, halls, or pathways for circumambulation (pradakshina). In South Indian temple architecture, prakaras are typically made of stone or brick and can be richly decorated with sculptures. The word derives from Sanskrit, meaning “enclosure” or “compound.” Prakaras serve both ritualistic and defensive purposes, marking sacred space and controlling access to the inner sanctum. They are integral to Dravidian temple design, especially in the Hoysala and Chola periods.

Why in news?

A Hoysala inscription was found on the outer prakara of a Shiva temple in Cheluvanahalli village, denoting the temple’s architectural and historical significance in the Hassan district.

Rajkot Fort, Malvan

Rajkot Fort is a coastal fort located in Malvan tehsil of Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. It was built by the Maratha ruler Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in the 17th century to protect the coastline from foreign invasions. The fort is known for its strategic location overlooking the Arabian Sea and its robust defense architecture including thick walls and bastions. It played important role in the Maratha naval power and maritime trade. The fort is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India but remains less frequented compared to other forts in Maharashtra. It also hosts local festivals related to Shivaji Maharaj.

Why in news?

The collapsed 35-foot statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was installed at Rajkot Fort, Malvan, which is a historically site in Sindhudurg district.

Shrikhand Mahadev Yatra

Shrikhand Mahadev Yatra is a traditional Hindu pilgrimage to the Shrikhand Mahadev peak in Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh. The trek covers about 32 kilometers and reaches an altitude of over 5,000 meters. It is considered one of the most challenging pilgrimages in India, attracting devotees annually during the summer months. The route passes through Singhgad, where a cloudburst in 2024 caused severe flooding. The pilgrimage involves camping and navigating difficult mountain terrain, with limited infrastructure. The yatra has cultural and religious significance tied to Lord Shiva. Weather disruptions like cloudbursts pose recurrent risks to pilgrims on this trail.

Why in news?

A cloudburst near Singhgad on the Shrikhand Mahadev Yatra route in July 2024 caused floods, washing away houses and resulting in missing persons in Kullu district.

Tuareg

The Tuareg are a nomadic Berber people primarily inhabiting the Sahara Desert, spanning countries like Mali, Niger, Algeria, and Libya. Known as the “Blue People” for their indigo-dyed clothing, they speak Tamasheq, a Berber language. Tuareg society is traditionally matrilineal, with women holding social roles. Their camel caravans historically facilitated trans-Saharan trade, especially in salt and gold. The Tuareg use a unique script called Tifinagh for writing. Despite Islam’s influence, many Tuareg maintain pre-Islamic customs and beliefs. Their traditional tent, the *Ehan*, is made from goat hair, providing insulation against desert extremes.

Why in news?

The Tuareg man pictured marks the Berber peoples’ long history in North Africa, distinguishing them genetically and culturally from later Arab arrivals.

Vespertilio-homo

The term Vespertilio-homo refers to a fictional species described as “man-bats” in the 1835 New York Sun moon hoax articles. These creatures were depicted as human beings with bat-like wings, supposedly inhabiting the moon. The name combines the Latin words vespertilio (bat) and homo (man). This invention was part of the sensational claims that included lunar forests, upright miniature bison, and unicorns. The Vespertilio-homo was never based on any scientific observation but served to enhance the fantastical narrative and captivate the public’s imagination during a time of limited astronomical knowledge.

Why in news?

The Vespertilio-homo was featured in the 1835 New York Sun articles falsely claiming life on the moon, part of a widely publicized and influential journalistic hoax.

Villianur

Villianur is a town in Puducherry known for the Villianur Manakula Vinayagar Temple, dedicated to Lord Ganesha. The temple is centuries old and plays a central role in local religious life. Villianur has a history of being a commercial and cultural hub during the French colonial period in Puducherry. The town’s architecture reflects colonial influences mixed with traditional Tamil styles. It is situated near the capital city, making it strategically important for urban expansion and religious tourism. The government’s plan to develop Villianur into a temple town aims to boost its cultural and economic profile.

Why in news?

The Puducherry government declared intentions to develop Villianur into a temple town under the 2024-25 budget proposals.

Vishalgad Fort

Vishalgad Fort is a historic hill fort located in Kolhapur district, Maharashtra. It played an important role in the Maratha Empire’s defense strategies under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The fort is situated in the Sahyadri mountain range and is known for its rugged terrain and rich biodiversity. It contains protected forest areas that were historically conserved for strategic and ecological reasons. The fort is a site for botanical research, as evidenced by recent discoveries like Ceropegia shivrayiana. Vishalgad is less frequented by tourists compared to other forts but remains for both historical and ecological studies.

Why in news?

Vishalgad Fort is in the spotlight due to the discovery of a new flowering plant species and ongoing research denoting its biodiversity.

Science & Technology

A1 and A2 Milk

A1 and A2 milk differ based on the type of beta-casein protein they contain. A1 beta-casein is found mainly in European-origin cows like Holstein, while A2 beta-casein is common in Indian and African cow breeds such as Gir and Sahiwal. The difference lies in a single amino acid in the protein chain, which affects digestion and potential health impacts. Some studies suggest A2 milk may be easier to digest and less likely to cause inflammation. However, regulatory bodies like FSSAI do not currently recognize this classification officially under food safety laws.

Why in news?

FSSAI withdrew its advisory that had directed food businesses to remove A1 and A2 milk claims from packaging, allowing continued marketing of these distinctions pending further consultations.

Additive Manufacturing (AM)

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a production process where objects are built layer-by-layer, commonly known as 3D printing. It allows for the creation of complex geometries, including lattice structures that reduce material usage and weight. AM is extensively used in aerospace for making lightweight, high-strength components that withstand harsh conditions. Unlike traditional subtractive manufacturing, AM builds parts by fusing materials, such as metals or polymers, precisely where needed. This technique enables rapid prototyping, customization, and efficient use of materials, critical for space missions where payload weight and structural integrity are crucial.

Why in news?

ISRO employed Additive Manufacturing to produce the intricate, lightweight skull of Vyomitra, improving strength and reducing weight for spaceflight demands.

AI-Powered Pheromone Traps

AI-powered pheromone traps use synthetic chemicals mimicking insect sex pheromones to attract and capture specific pests like the pink bollworm. These traps are integrated with sensors and AI algorithms to monitor pest populations in real-time, providing farmers with timely data for targeted interventions. The Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR) piloted this technology in Punjab’s cotton belt in 2024, involving 18 farmers. This method reduces pesticide overuse, improves pest management accuracy, and supports sustainable cotton farming. AI analysis helps predict pest outbreaks and optimize control measures based on environmental and pest behavior data.

Why in news?

CICR’s 2024 pilot project in Punjab uses AI-powered pheromone traps to monitor pink bollworm populations, aiming to improve pest control and support cotton farmers facing severe infestations.

Alfvén Wings

Alfvén wings are magnetic structures formed when a celestial body’s magnetic field interacts with a flowing plasma, creating two-way channels for charged particles. They occur when the magnetic field lines of a planet or moon connect with the magnetic field of the surrounding plasma, allowing particle exchange. These wings are common around Jupiter’s moons Io and Ganymede, where they channel particles into Jupiter’s magnetosphere, enhancing its ultraviolet auroras. On Earth, Alfvén wings are rare and form only under unusual conditions such as during intense solar storms when Earth’s bow shock dissipates temporarily, allowing magnetic fusion between solar and terrestrial fields.

Why in news?

NASA reported the formation of a rare two-way Alfvén wing “highway” between the Sun and Earth during a geomagnetic storm in April 2023, where Earth temporarily spewed particles back to the Sun.

Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS)

The Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) is a scientific instrument used to analyze the elemental composition of lunar soil by bombarding samples with alpha particles and X-rays emitted from a radioactive curium source. It detects characteristic X-rays emitted by elements in the soil to determine their abundance. APXS has been used in various planetary missions, including Mars rovers and lunar landers. On Pragyan, it enabled detailed chemical analysis of dust and rocks at multiple locations. Its ability to measure minor and major elements helps scientists understand the moon’s geological history and the effects of meteorite impacts on surface composition.

Why in news?

Pragyan rover’s APXS instrument provided key data on lunar soil composition at Statio Shiv Shakti, confirming the presence of ferroan anorthosite and magnesium-rich debris, crucial for lunar origin studies.

Anaphylaxis Incidence in India

Anaphylaxis in India is under-reported due to fragmentation across medical specialties and limited studies. Venom and medication-induced anaphylaxis are well-recognized, but food-induced cases are rising, likely due to globalisation and lifestyle changes. Common allergens include nuts, milk, fish, fruits, vaccines, anti-inflammatories, and insect venom from bees and wasps. Children are more affected by food allergens, while adults experience more drug-induced reactions. Awareness and reporting are increasing, but emergency treatments like epinephrine auto-injectors remain scarce, complicating timely care.

Why in news?

Experts show the need for accessible treatments like Neffy nasal spray in India due to under-reported and increasing anaphylaxis cases, especially from food allergens.

Antimony Trioxide (ATO)

Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is the primary industrial compound derived from antimony, used mainly as a flame retardant additive in plastics, textiles, and electronics. It enhances fire resistance by promoting the formation of a protective char layer. ATO is also employed as a clarifying agent in photovoltaic glass to improve solar cell efficiency. China produces over 70% of the global supply of ATO. The compound is produced by roasting stibnite or by chemical precipitation from antimony solutions. It is considered a dual-use material due to its applications in both civilian and military technologies.

Why in news?

ATO is central to China’s export controls on antimony products, impacting flame retardant and solar glass industries worldwide.

Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging (ATMP) and Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test (OSAT)

ATMP and OSAT refer to stages in semiconductor manufacturing focused on assembling and testing chips after wafer fabrication. ATMP involves packaging chips into their final form, marking them for identification, and testing their functionality. OSAT companies provide these services as outsourced partners to fabless semiconductor companies or fabs. These plants are less complex and capital-intensive than fabrication plants but are critical for quality assurance and final product delivery. OSAT providers often operate globally and specialize in various packaging technologies, including advanced 3D packaging and system-in-package solutions, which influence chip performance and integration.

Why in news?

The Government of India has approved three ATMP/OSAT plants, including projects by Micron Technology, Tata, and C G Power, to boost domestic semiconductor assembly and testing capabilities.

Axiom Space and the Ax-4 Mission

Axiom Space, Inc. is a Houston-based private aerospace company planning to operate the world’s first commercial space station. It organizes crewed missions to the ISS, including the Ax-4 mission, the fourth such mission by Axiom. Ax-4 will carry private astronauts and international partners, including India’s Gaganyaan astronauts, using SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule launched by a Falcon 9 rocket. Axiom Space provides astronaut training, mission planning, and launch services. The company aims to transition from ISS missions to its own commercial orbital platform in the late 2020s. The Ax-4 mission is tentatively scheduled for late 2024 or early 2025.

Why in news?

India’s astronauts will participate in the Ax-4 mission to the ISS, marking collaboration between ISRO and Axiom Space.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) Vaccine

The BCG vaccine, developed over 100 years ago, is the only approved vaccine against tuberculosis (TB). It is derived from a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, a relative of the TB-causing bacterium. The vaccine primarily protects infants and young children from severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and miliary TB. Its effectiveness in adults varies geographically, possibly due to environmental mycobacteria exposure. The BCG vaccine also shows some protection against leprosy and bladder cancer. Despite its long use, it does not prevent pulmonary TB effectively, which is the most common form of the disease worldwide.

Why in news?

Researchers at the University of the Witwatersrand modified the BCG vaccine using gene editing to improve its efficacy against tuberculosis, showing promising results in mice.

Base Editing with Deactivated TnpB

Deactivating TnpB’s cutting ability and fusing it with another protein created a hybrid base editor capable of swapping single nucleotides in DNA instead of just deleting sequences. This innovation allows precise editing at the nucleotide level, which was not possible with active TnpB. Base editing enables targeted changes without double-strand breaks in DNA, reducing unintended mutations. The new TnpB-based base editor expands the toolkit for plant synthetic biology by allowing precise gene alterations that can improve crop traits such as nutrient content, pest resistance, and stress tolerance.

Why in news?

The creation of a TnpB-based base editor marks advancement in precise plant genome editing, enabling single-nucleotide changes for crop improvement.

Beta-Casein

Beta-casein is a major protein in cow’s milk, constituting the second largest group among caseins. It exists primarily in two genetic variants – A1 and A2, differing by a single amino acid in their sequence. A1 beta-casein contains histidine at position 67, while A2 beta-casein contains proline. These differences affect digestion and potential health impacts. Beta-casein variants influence the release of bioactive peptides during digestion, such as beta-casomorphin-7, which has been studied for its physiological effects. The A1 and A2 classification is genetic and breed-dependent, with certain cow breeds producing predominantly one variant.

Why in news?

The FSSAI issued and then withdrew an advisory on marketing milk based on A1 and A2 beta-casein classification, citing the need for further consultation and scientific clarity.

Bio-AI Hubs

Bio-AI hubs combine biotechnology with artificial intelligence to optimize biological research and manufacturing processes. These hubs leverage machine learning algorithms to analyze large biological datasets, predict molecular interactions, and accelerate discovery. They facilitate precision engineering of microbes, enzymes, and biomolecules for applications in medicine, agriculture, and environmental sustainability. Bio-AI hubs support real-time monitoring and adaptive control in biomanufacturing, improving efficiency and reducing waste. They represent a convergence of computational biology and industrial biotechnology, enabling scalable and sustainable production. India’s BioE3 policy includes establishing bio-AI hubs as part of its strategy to lead in next-generation biotechnologies.

Why in news?

Bio-AI hubs are brought into light in India’s BioE3 policy to integrate AI technologies with biotechnology for enhanced research and industrial biomanufacturing capabilities.

Biofoundries

Biofoundries are automated facilities that integrate robotics, AI, and synthetic biology to design, build, and test biological systems rapidly. They enable high-throughput experimentation, reducing the time and cost of developing new biological products. Biofoundries use modular workflows for genetic engineering, metabolic pathway optimization, and bioprocessing. They support innovation in pharmaceuticals, biomaterials, and sustainable chemicals. Globally, biofoundries are emerging as critical infrastructure for the bioeconomy, facilitating collaboration between academia and industry. India’s BioE3 policy plans to establish biofoundries to accelerate commercialization of biotechnological advances and enhance competitiveness in global markets.

Why in news?

Biofoundries are part of India’s new BioE3 policy, designed to create advanced biomanufacturing infrastructure and promote biotechnology innovation by 2047.

Bone Marrow Cell Metabolic Plasticity in Aging

Bone marrow cells produce blood cells and play a role in immune function. In aging, these cells show suppressed energy production, increased inflammation, and a shift towards glucose dependence for fuel. This metabolic shift is driven by elevated activity of inflammation-modulating proteins. Reduced metabolic plasticity impairs the cells’ ability to proliferate and respond to stress, contributing to systemic aging and neurodegeneration. Experimental inhibition of these proteins in aged mice restores energy production, lowers inflammation, and improves brain plasticity, particularly in memory-associated areas. This reveals a link between bone marrow metabolism and cognitive aging.

Why in news?

Research shows that targeting metabolic dysfunction in aging bone marrow cells can reduce inflammation and improve memory-related brain plasticity in mice.

Brain Mapping in Deception Detection

Brain mapping in deception detection uses electrodes placed on the face and neck to measure brainwave activity. It operates on the principle that the brain produces distinctive neural patterns when exposed to familiar stimuli such as images or sounds. This technique attempts to identify recognition of crime-related information, differing from polygraph tests that measure physiological responses. Brain mapping is also known as the P300 test, focusing on a specific brainwave generated when the subject recognizes relevant information. Despite its scientific basis, brain mapping’s accuracy and reliability in legal settings remain debated and it is less commonly used than polygraphs or narco-analysis.

Why in news?

Brain mapping is mentioned as one of the deception detection tests being discussed in the context of ongoing investigations and court rulings on lie detection methods.

Brain Stem Death

Brain stem death is the irreversible cessation of all brain stem functions, including the ability to breathe independently. It is a legal and medical criterion for declaring death in many countries, enabling organ donation before cardiac arrest. Organs donated from brain stem-dead donors include heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and intestines, along with tissues like cornea and skin. This condition allows for the retrieval of multiple organs in optimal condition, unlike donation after cardiac death, which limits donations to tissues. Brain stem death diagnosis requires strict protocols, including clinical tests and sometimes confirmatory imaging or EEG.

Why in news?

Brain stem death is central to organ donation policies, as organs from brain stem-dead donors can save multiple lives, brought into light in recent organ donation statistics.

Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB)

The Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology is a premier research organization under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in India, located in Hyderabad. Established in 1977, it focuses on frontier areas of modern biology including molecular genetics, structural biology, and bioinformatics. CCMB contributed to the sequencing of the Indian genome and was the first Indian institute to sequence the SARS-CoV-2 virus during the COVID-19 pandemic. The center also emphasizes science communication and public outreach, led by experts like Somadatta Karak, to bridge the gap between research and society.

Why in news?

Somadatta Karak, head of science communication at CCMB, marks the challenges Indian students face in scientific writing and communication, especially in tier 2 cities.

Clade 1B

Clade 1B is a subtype of the monkeypox virus linked to increased transmissibility compared to other clades. It has caused over 500 deaths primarily in the Democratic Republic of Congo. This clade is part of the Central African (Congo Basin) lineage, known for higher virulence than the West African clade. Clade 1B spreads through close contact with bodily fluids, skin lesions, or contaminated objects. It has been detected outside Africa, including a confirmed case in Sweden, which is connected to ongoing outbreaks in Africa. The clade’s enhanced spread has raised global health concerns and prompted emergency declarations.

Why in news?

Clade 1B’s increased spread and lethality in the DRC and its detection in Sweden have triggered a public health emergency declaration by the WHO.

Computer Emergency Response Team – India (CERT-In)

CERT-In is the national agency responsible for cybersecurity incident response in India, operating under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. Established in 2004, it monitors cyber threats, issues alerts, and coordinates responses to cybersecurity incidents. CERT-In maintains a database of vulnerabilities and provides guidance to organizations for mitigating risks. It also conducts training and awareness programs. The agency plays a critical role in protecting government and private sector IT infrastructure and collaborates with international cybersecurity bodies. CERT-In’s intervention is mandatory for reporting cyber incidents in India.

Why in news?

CERT-In was notified about the IRCTC insurance portal vulnerability in July 2024 and coordinated with the concerned organization to ensure the issue was fixed.

CRISPR Gene Editing Technology

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a gene editing tool that allows precise modification of DNA sequences. It uses a guide RNA to target specific DNA regions and the Cas9 enzyme to cut the DNA, enabling insertion, deletion, or alteration of genetic material. CRISPR originated from bacterial immune defense mechanisms against viruses. It has revolutionized genetics, enabling rapid development of genetically modified organisms, disease models, and potential therapies. Its application in vaccine development is emerging, allowing targeted improvements in vaccine strains by modifying pathogen genes to enhance immune recognition or safety.

Why in news?

Scientists used CRISPR to modify the BCG vaccine strain to expose hidden immune markers, advancing tuberculosis vaccine research.

Cube Satellites and Pico Satellites

Cube satellites, or CubeSats, are miniature satellites typically measuring 10x10x10 cm units used for scientific research and technology demonstration. Pico satellites are even smaller, weighing less than 1 kilogram, designed for specialized atmospheric and environmental data collection. These small satellites are cost-effective and enable frequent launches. The Rhumi-1 rocket deployed three CubeSats and 50 Pico satellites during its mission to study atmospheric conditions, showcasing the growing trend of using miniaturized satellites for space research and environmental monitoring.

Why in news?

The Rhumi-1 rocket carried multiple CubeSats and Pico satellites to monitor atmospheric conditions during its August 2024 launch in Chennai.

Cyanogenic Glycosides

Cyanogenic glycosides are naturally occurring plant compounds that release hydrogen cyanide when enzymatically broken down. Found in foods like cassava, almonds, apricot kernels, and lima beans, these compounds serve as a plant defense mechanism against herbivores. The hydrolysis process occurs when plant tissues are damaged, mixing glycosides with specific enzymes. Though not inherently toxic in intact form, ingestion of cyanogenic glycosides can lead to cyanide poisoning if consumed in large amounts or improperly processed. Traditional food preparation techniques, such as soaking and cooking, reduce cyanide content. Their presence in staple foods poses health risks in certain regions, necessitating detection methods.

Why in news?

The new sensor detects cyanide released from cyanogenic glycosides in foods like tapioca, helping prevent fatal poisoning incidents reported recently in Kerala.

Cyclotron in Nuclear Medicine

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator used to produce radioactive isotopes for nuclear medicine. It accelerates charged particles in a spiral path using magnetic and electric fields. These isotopes are used in diagnostic imaging, such as PET scans, and in targeted radiotherapy. Cyclotrons enable on-site production of short-lived isotopes, improving availability and reducing costs. The technology was invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1930. High-capacity cyclotrons can produce multiple isotopes simultaneously, enhancing the efficiency of nuclear medicine departments.

Why in news?

Himachal Pradesh is establishing a Cancer Care Center of Excellence with a nuclear medicine department featuring a high-capacity cyclotron to enhance cancer diagnosis and treatment.

DART Mission

The Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission was NASA’s first demonstration of asteroid deflection technology, successfully impacting an asteroid in 2022 to alter its trajectory. DART targeted the asteroid moonlet Dimorphos, part of the Didymos binary system, to test kinetic impactor techniques for planetary defense. This mission proved it is possible to change the course of potentially hazardous asteroids, providing a viable method to protect Earth from future impacts. DART’s success is a foundational step in developing asteroid collision mitigation strategies.

Why in news?

DART’s successful asteroid impact is referenced as a major advancement in planetary defense technology, relevant to ongoing efforts following NEOWISE’s mission end.

Doppler Radar in India’s Weather Forecasting

Doppler radar technology detects precipitation intensity and movement by measuring frequency shifts in returned radar waves. India’s IMD began installing Doppler radars in the early 2000s to improve real-time weather monitoring, especially for cyclones and severe storms. These radars provide data on wind velocity and rainfall, enabling better short-term forecasts and early warnings. However, coverage remains incomplete, particularly in the eastern and northeastern regions. Doppler radars typically have a range of 200-300 km and can track storm development and movement, critical for disaster preparedness. They complement satellite data and ground observations in IMD’s integrated forecasting system.

Why in news?

Doppler radar coverage gaps in eastern and northeastern India are cited as areas needing infrastructure upgrades in the IMD’s planned modernization efforts.

Dual GIP and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists

Dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonists are a class of drugs that activate both glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors. This combined mechanism improves insulin secretion, reduces appetite, and enhances weight loss more effectively than GLP-1 agonists alone. Tirzepatide, the active compound in Zepbound and Mounjaro, is the first approved dual agonist for diabetes and obesity treatment. These drugs mimic incretin hormones, which regulate blood sugar and satiety. Clinical trials reveal reductions in body weight and blood glucose levels but also note side effects like gastrointestinal discomfort. Long-term effects and optimal dosing regimens remain under investigation.

Why in news?

Dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonists are central to the latest obesity drugs like Zepbound and Wegovy, sparking discussions on their long-term use and impact on weight maintenance.

Earth’s Bow Shock

Earth’s bow shock is a boundary where the solar wind, a stream of charged particles from the Sun, abruptly slows down and diverts around Earth’s magnetosphere. It forms a shockwave ahead of Earth, similar to the bow wave of a boat moving through water. The bow shock protects Earth by deflecting high-energy solar particles, preventing them from directly hitting the atmosphere. Its position varies with solar wind pressure and magnetic activity. During intense solar storms, the bow shock can weaken or dissipate temporarily, allowing unusual magnetic interactions between solar and Earth’s magnetic fields.

Why in news?

During the April 2023 solar storm, Earth’s bow shock dissipated briefly, enabling a two-way particle flow between Earth and the Sun, a phenomenon detected by NASA spacecraft.

Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)

The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is critical for human spaceflight, providing breathable air, temperature regulation, and waste management inside crew capsules and stations. ISRO’s Gaganyaan mission is developing its own ECLSS to maintain a safe and habitable environment for astronauts during flight. The system controls oxygen levels, removes carbon dioxide, manages humidity, and recycles water. It also supports thermal regulation and monitors air quality. ECLSS development is complex and requires rigorous testing to ensure reliability in space conditions. Gaganyaan’s ECLSS is partly being developed domestically, with some components sourced internationally.

Why in news?

ISRO is advancing the development of the ECLSS for the Gaganyaan mission, a key step for India’s first crewed spaceflight.

Extremophiles in Laboratory Microwaves

Extremophiles are microorganisms that survive in harsh environments, such as extreme radiation, temperature, or dryness. Laboratory microwaves were found to contain a diverse range of these microbes, adapted to withstand the intense conditions inside the ovens. These extremophiles possess unique cellular mechanisms like robust DNA repair and protective enzymes. Their survival marks microbial resilience and adaptability. They are often studied for their potential applications in biotechnology, such as enzymes stable at high temperatures. Extremophiles in microwaves demonstrate that even environments with frequent radiation exposure can support microbial life.

Why in news?

The study found extremophilic bacteria thriving in laboratory microwave ovens, showing their ability to endure high radiation and temperature conditions within these devices.

Fixed Dose Combination (FDC) Medicines

Fixed Dose Combination (FDC) medicines contain two or more active pharmaceutical ingredients combined in a single dosage form. They are designed to improve patient compliance by reducing pill burden. FDCs are commonly used in treatments for tuberculosis, HIV, and hypertension. However, many FDCs lack rigorous clinical evidence for combined efficacy and safety, leading to regulatory scrutiny. In India, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) oversees FDC approvals. Some FDCs have been banned due to irrational combinations causing adverse effects or therapeutic inefficacy. The Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) plays a key role in evaluating their justification and safety.

Why in news?

The Government of India banned 156 FDC medicines after expert committees found no therapeutic justification and potential health risks, aiming to protect public health by removing unsafe drug combinations from the market.

G-4 Class Geomagnetic Storm

A G-4 class geomagnetic storm is a severe space weather event categorized by NOAA’s geomagnetic storm scale, indicating strong disturbances in Earth’s magnetosphere. It can cause widespread auroras, disruptions to satellite operations, GPS navigation, and power grids. G-4 storms are caused by intense coronal mass ejections (CMEs) from the Sun that impact Earth’s magnetic field. Such storms are less frequent but more impactful than lower-class storms. The April 23, 2023, G-4 storm produced auroras at unusually low latitudes, including Ladakh, and Arizona, and triggered rare magnetic phenomena like the two-way particle flow.

Why in news?

The April 21, 2023, coronal mass ejection triggered a G-4 class geomagnetic storm on Earth two days later, causing rare low-latitude auroras and unusual magnetic interactions between Earth and the Sun.

Galaxy M106 (NGC 4258)

Galaxy M106, also known as NGC 4258, is a spiral galaxy approximately 23.5 million light-years away in the constellation Canes Venatici. It is notable for its active supermassive black hole that emits strong radiation by accreting dust and gas, making its central region unusually bright. M106 hosts anomalous arms visible in X-ray and radio wavelengths, thought to be caused by jets from the black hole interacting with surrounding gas. It is one of the brightest nearby spiral galaxies and serves as an important laboratory for studying black hole activity and galactic dynamics.

Why in news?

JWST captured detailed images of M106, denoting its active black hole and contributing to ongoing studies of galactic evolution and black hole feedback.

Ganymede

Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system and the only moon known to have its own magnetic field, generated by a liquid iron core. It is larger than the planet Mercury and has a thick ice crust covering a subsurface ocean that may contain more water than all Earth’s oceans combined. Ganymede’s surface features include both highly cratered dark regions and younger, lighter regions with extensive grooved terrain formed by tectonic processes. Its thin oxygen atmosphere is too sparse to support human life. JUICE will be the first spacecraft to orbit Ganymede, aiming to study its habitability and magnetic environment.

Why in news?

JUICE’s mission includes orbiting Ganymede to investigate its potential for supporting life and to study its unique magnetic field and subsurface ocean.

Ganymede Orbit Insertion

The orbit insertion around Ganymede planned by the JUICE mission will be the first time a spacecraft orbits a moon other than Earth’s. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, larger than the planet Mercury. The orbit will be about 200 kilometers above its surface, allowing close-up observations of its magnetic field, ice crust, and potential subsurface ocean. This orbit requires precise speed and trajectory adjustments to maintain stability and avoid collision. The data collected will improve understanding of icy moon habitability and the Jovian system’s dynamics.

Why in news?

JUICE’s gravity assist maneuver will save fuel necessary for the spacecraft to achieve its planned orbit around Ganymede, enabling detailed scientific observations.

Gene Drive

Gene drive is a genetic engineering technique that increases the probability a specific gene is inherited beyond the usual 50% chance, potentially up to 99%. This is achieved by biasing inheritance so that the modified gene spreads rapidly through a population over generations. Gene drives can be used to introduce traits like female sterility into mosquito populations to suppress their numbers. The technology is still under study, with no field trials conducted yet in Africa. Gene drives raise ecological and ethical questions, requiring extensive safety and efficacy testing before deployment. It represents a novel approach to controlling vector-borne diseases like malaria.

Why in news?

Gene drive mosquitoes are being developed and tested in labs to reduce malaria by suppressing mosquito populations, with planned future field trials in Africa.

Glucose-Responsive Insulin (GRI)

Glucose-responsive insulin (GRI) is a novel insulin formulation designed to activate only when blood glucose levels rise above a specific point, preventing both hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. Four international research projects are focused on GRI development, including at Wayne State University, Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, University of Notre Dame, and Monash University. GRIs use glucose-sensing molecules combined with insulin to create a system that releases insulin in response to glucose fluctuations. Some GRIs form a subcutaneous reservoir, allowing weekly or daily dosing. These insulins aim to mimic natural pancreatic function more closely than standard insulin therapies.

Why in news?

Four of the six newly funded projects under the Type 1 Diabetes Grand Challenge focus on glucose-responsive insulins to improve blood sugar control.

GOLD Mission

The Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) mission is a NASA satellite launched in 2018 to study Earth’s ionosphere. It uses an ultraviolet imaging spectrograph to observe the ionosphere’s temperature and composition from geostationary orbit. GOLD is the first mission to provide continuous, real-time measurements of the ionosphere over the Americas. Its data help scientists understand space weather effects on communication and navigation systems. The mission has revealed unexpected phenomena like X- and C-shaped charged particle structures that affect radio signal propagation. GOLD operates from a fixed position, enabling detailed monitoring of ionospheric changes over time.

Why in news?

The GOLD mission recently observed strange alphabet-like charged particle anomalies in the ionosphere that disrupt global communication and navigation signals, including GPS, even during calm atmospheric conditions.

Healthspan

Healthspan refers to the period of life during which an individual remains healthy and free from serious chronic diseases or disabilities. It differs from lifespan, which is the total length of life. Extending healthspan is a key goal in aging research, aiming to improve quality of life rather than merely increasing years lived. Factors influencing healthspan include genetics, lifestyle, nutrition, and environmental exposures. Therapeutic targets to extend healthspan focus on delaying or preventing age-related diseases such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders. Healthspan emphasizes functional capacity and well-being rather than survival alone.

Why in news?

The study marks healthspan as a focus for aging research to improve life quality by targeting molecular changes at critical ages.

HxNx and H5Nx Influenza Strains

HxNx and H5Nx are classifications of influenza A viruses based on combinations of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) surface proteins. HxNx (1) and H5Nx (48) indicate multiple subtypes where x represents variable neuraminidase or hemagglutinin types. These strains have emerged through genetic reassortment and mutation, contributing to the diversity and adaptability of avian influenza viruses. H5Nx subtypes, including H5N1, H5N5, H5N6, and H5N8, have caused outbreaks across continents, infecting birds and mammals. Their genetic variability complicates control efforts and increases the risk of reassortment events that could lead to human pandemics.

Why in news?

Multiple HxNx and H5Nx influenza strains have been detected in recent years, contributing to the evolving threat of avian influenza and its potential to cause widespread outbreaks and pandemics in 2024.

ICMR Guidelines on Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) guidelines govern assisted reproductive technology clinics and procedures. Issued first in 2005 and updated later, these guidelines mandate that gamete donors relinquish all parental rights. They define intending parents as the legal parents of children born via ART, regardless of biological contribution from donors. The guidelines also regulate donor anonymity and ethical practices in fertility treatments. They serve as a precursor to the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, influencing legal interpretations of parentage and custody in ART-related cases.

Why in news?

The Bombay High Court referenced ICMR guidelines to rule that an egg donor has no parental rights over children born through surrogacy, reinforcing legal clarity on ART-related parentage.

In-Ovo Vaccination Machine

The In-Ovo vaccination machine injects vaccines directly into fertilized eggs during incubation, specifically after the setting stage and before hatching. This method immunizes chicks against diseases such as Gumboro and Newcastle Disease before they hatch, improving early-life survival rates. It reduces the need for post-hatch vaccinations, decreasing handling stress and labor costs. The technology demands precise timing and sterile conditions to avoid harming embryos. Originating from advanced poultry biotech practices, these machines are imported from European firms and represent a critical innovation in modern hatchery management. This process enhances biosecurity and uniform vaccine delivery in large-scale broiler production.

Why in news?

The In-Ovo vaccination machine is part of the IB Group’s hatchery operations, supplying vaccinated day-old chicks to contract farmers in Chhattisgarh and across India.

IndiaAI Mission

The IndiaAI Mission is a government initiative aiming to establish a computing infrastructure with more than 10,000 GPUs to support AI research and development. It targets foundational AI models with over 100 billion parameters trained on datasets covering major Indian languages. The mission focuses on priority sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and governance. It involves a budget of Rs 10,370 crore, with Rs 4,564 crore allocated for computing infrastructure. The implementation uses a public-private partnership model with 50% viability gap funding to encourage private sector participation.

Why in news?

The government finalized a tender to procure 1,000 GPUs as part of the IndiaAI Mission to provide AI compute capacity to startups, researchers, and public agencies.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in India for coordinating agricultural education and research. Established in 1929, ICAR functions under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture. It oversees 100+ institutes and 70+ agricultural universities across India. ICAR’s research spans crop improvement, pest management, natural resource management, and agricultural extension. It played important role in the Green Revolution by developing high-yielding crop varieties. ICAR also facilitates technology transfer to farmers and promotes sustainable agriculture through innovative research and policy guidance. Its headquarters is located in New Delhi.

Why in news?

The NPSS launch event was held at ICAR’s premises, denoting its role in advancing agricultural science and technology in India.

Indian Oil’s Cryogenics

Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) developed advanced cryogenic technologies crucial for ISRO’s space missions. Cryogenics involves handling extremely low temperatures to store and transport liquefied gases like liquid hydrogen and oxygen used as rocket propellants. Indian Oil’s cryogenic units support ISRO’s launch vehicles by supplying these fuels safely and efficiently. This collaboration is vital for missions like Gaganyaan, India’s first human spaceflight program. Indian Oil’s cryogenic tech has evolved from industrial uses to sophisticated aerospace applications, ensuring reliability and cost-effectiveness in fueling rockets.

Why in news?

Indian Oil’s cryogenic technology was brought into light during National Space Day celebrations for its key role in India’s space program and upcoming missions like Gaganyaan.

Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG)

INSACOG is a network consisting of 67 laboratories and over 400 sentinel sites across India, tasked with genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2. It conducts Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) to detect new virus variants rapidly. The National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) acts as the lead agency for INSACOG. By June 15, 2024, India had sequenced 336,892 SARS-CoV-2 genomes, with INSACOG responsible for 301,451 of these. The consortium facilitates data sharing between states and central authorities to inform public health responses.

Why in news?

INSACOG is instrumental in identifying and tracking the new KP.1 and KP.2 COVID-19 strains contributing to the surge in India.

Injectable Polio Vaccine (IPV) Usage in India

The injectable polio vaccine (IPV) contains inactivated poliovirus and cannot cause vaccine-derived infections. IPV requires trained healthcare workers for administration and does not prevent poliovirus transmission since it induces systemic immunity but limited intestinal immunity. India administers one dose of IPV during routine immunization but continues multiple OPV doses during Pulse Polio Days to maintain community immunity. Countries like the US and Canada have fully switched to IPV due to its safety profile. India’s current IPV schedule is considered suboptimal compared to the three doses and booster used elsewhere, necessitating continued OPV use.

Why in news?

India’s polio vaccination strategy involves both IPV and OPV after a vaccine-derived polio case raised concerns about immunization coverage and virus spread.

INSAT-3DS Meteorological Satellite

INSAT-3DS is a meteorological satellite launched by ISRO on February 17, 2024, aboard a GSLV rocket. It carries advanced sensors for weather forecasting, atmospheric studies, and disaster warning. The satellite improves the accuracy of cyclone tracking, rainfall estimation, and cloud imaging. INSAT-3DS was a critical mission to validate the GSLV’s reliability before the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission planned for early 2025. It follows the earlier successful launch of NVS-01 by the same GSLV variant in 2023. INSAT-3DS operates in geostationary orbit, providing continuous meteorological data over the Indian subcontinent.

Why in news?

INSAT-3DS was launched to strengthen India’s weather forecasting infrastructure and to certify the GSLV for upcoming high-profile missions like NISAR.

Institute of Advanced Virology (IAV), Thiruvananthapuram

The Institute of Advanced Virology (IAV) in Thiruvananthapuram developed an in-house Zika virus assay using publicly available CDC sequence data. The assay was validated using 18 Zika-positive samples from a 2022 coastal outbreak and commercially available kits. IAV’s test is cost-effective and supports syndromic testing of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika simultaneously. The institute also uses this assay for surveillance in humans and mosquitoes. Validation included genome sequencing of positive samples. IAV’s assay was developed to overcome delays caused by lack of clinical samples and regulatory hurdles faced by other Indian labs.

Why in news?

IAV’s in-house Zika assay is a rare indigenous diagnostic development in India, providing a cheaper alternative to imported CDC kits and enabling local surveillance and outbreak management.

Insular Dwarfism

Insular dwarfism is an evolutionary process where species isolated on islands evolve smaller body sizes over generations. This phenomenon occurs due to limited resources, reduced predation, and ecological niche changes. It has been observed in various animals, including elephants, deer, and hominins like Homo floresiensis. The effect results in size reduction compared to mainland relatives. Insular dwarfism can also lead to unique adaptations and speciation. It is a key concept in understanding the small stature of the hobbits and their ancestors on Flores, influencing interpretations of their evolutionary origins and survival strategies.

Why in news?

The study of new fossils from Flores supports the role of insular dwarfism in the evolution of Homo floresiensis and their even smaller ancestors, denoting evolutionary mechanisms on islands.

Insulin from Cone Snail Venom

Insulin molecules derived from cone snail venom are being studied at Stanford University to develop ultrafast-acting insulin for type 1 diabetes. Cone snails use insulin as a venom weapon to rapidly lower blood glucose in prey. The venom insulin molecules are structurally different and do not cluster like human insulin, allowing faster action in the bloodstream. Researchers aim to design synthetic insulin based on these molecules to reduce delays in blood glucose regulation and minimize spikes after insulin administration. This approach could improve safety and effectiveness over current fast-acting insulins.

Why in news?

Stanford University is developing ultrafast insulin inspired by cone snail venom to enhance insulin therapy speed and reduce blood sugar fluctuations in type 1 diabetes.

Insulin-Producing Beta Cells

Insulin-producing beta cells are specialized cells located in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. They synthesize and secrete insulin, a hormone critical for regulating blood glucose levels. Beta cells respond to rising blood sugar by releasing insulin, facilitating cellular glucose uptake. Damage or dysfunction of beta cells can lead to diabetes mellitus. Beta cells express ACE2 receptors, which SARS-CoV-2 uses to enter cells, potentially causing direct viral injury. Beta cell loss or impaired function contributes to both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Regeneration of beta cells is limited in adults, making damage often irreversible and a target for diabetes therapies.

Why in news?

The study linked COVID-19 to diabetes risk partly through potential damage to beta cells by the virus using ACE2 receptors to infect these cells.

International Space Station (ISS)

The ISS orbits Earth at approximately 267 miles altitude and completes about 16 orbits every 24 hours. It serves as a unique platform for observing Earth’s phenomena like the terminator. The ISS is a multinational collaboration involving NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, and CSA. It supports scientific research in microgravity and Earth observation. The station travels at roughly 17,500 mph, allowing astronauts to witness multiple sunrises and sunsets daily. The ISS has been continuously inhabited since November 2000, making it one of the longest-running human outposts in space.

Why in news?

The ISS provided the vantage point for capturing NASA’s recent image of the Earth’s terminator over the Pacific Ocean.

Island dwarfism in hominins

Island dwarfism is an evolutionary process where species isolated on islands evolve smaller body sizes due to limited resources and environmental pressures. In hominins, this phenomenon is exemplified by Homo floresiensis on Flores Island. The species’ small stature, around 1.07 meters, and brain size are believed to result from this process. Island dwarfism is well-documented in other animals but is rare and controversial in human evolution. It can lead to unique adaptations in physiology and morphology, influenced by factors like food scarcity, predator absence, and competition. Homo floresiensis represents a key example of this evolutionary principle.

Why in news?

The discovery of even smaller ancestors of Homo floresiensis supports the theory that island dwarfism shaped human evolution on Flores Island over hundreds of thousands of years.

Isro Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Antenna Reflector

The SAR antenna reflector is a large, deployable structure on the Nisar satellite designed to emit and receive radar signals for high-resolution Earth imaging. It measures approximately 12 meters in diameter when fully deployed. The reflector is made of lightweight materials and coated with a special thermal layer to withstand extreme temperature fluctuations in space. It is folded during launch and unfolds once in orbit, a complex mechanical process requiring precise engineering. The reflector’s coating helps mitigate thermal expansion and contraction, ensuring stable radar performance. It was transported between India and the U.S. for specialized treatments and integration.

Why in news?

The reflector’s deployment mechanism and thermal coating are critical reasons for the Nisar mission’s launch delay beyond February 2025, as teams work to ensure its reliability in orbit.

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan’s national space agency, formed in 2003 by merging three organizations. It conducts space and planetary exploration, satellite development, and research on Earth observation and aerospace technology. JAXA was the first Asian agency to land a spacecraft on the Moon with SLIM and has contributed to the International Space Station. It develops advanced technologies like ion propulsion and asteroid sample-return missions. JAXA’s lunar exploration focuses on precise landing techniques and scientific study of the Moon’s geology, supporting future human lunar missions and international cooperation in space exploration.

Why in news?

JAXA announced the end of the SLIM lunar mission after losing contact with the lander, marking a milestone in Japan’s lunar exploration efforts.

JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer)

JUICE is a European Space Agency spacecraft launched in 2023 to study Jupiter and its three largest icy moons – Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. It is the first mission designed to orbit a moon other than Earth’s, specifically Ganymede. Its scientific objectives include analyzing the moons’ subsurface oceans, ice shells, and potential habitability. The spacecraft’s journey involves multiple gravity assists, including a novel double slingshot maneuver using the Moon and Earth. It is equipped with advanced instruments like a radar sounder and spectrometers to probe the moons’ ice layers and atmospheres. Arrival at Jupiter is planned for 2031.

Why in news?

JUICE is attempting the first-ever double gravity assist maneuver using the Moon and Earth to reach Jupiter, marking a critical phase in its eight-year journey to study Jupiter’s ocean-bearing moons.

Kavach Anti-Collision System

Kavach is an indigenous automatic train protection system developed by Indian Railways to prevent collisions and enhance safety. It uses radio communication between trains and trackside equipment to monitor speed and signal adherence. Kavach can automatically apply brakes if a train passes a red signal or is at risk of collision. It is designed to work in diverse Indian railway conditions and supports interoperability with existing signaling systems. The system aims to reduce accidents caused by human error and improve overall operational safety. Deployment began in 2019 and is expanding across key routes.

Why in news?

The Railway Budget 2024-25 allocated funds to prioritize safety through the expansion of the Kavach anti-collision system across the network.

Kilonova

A kilonova is an astronomical event that occurs when two neutron stars merge, producing a short-lived burst of electromagnetic radiation. The merger ejects heavy elements via rapid neutron capture (r-process), contributing to the cosmic abundance of precious metals like gold and platinum. The first confirmed kilonova was observed on August 18, 2017, linked to the gravitational wave event GW170817. Kilonovas emit light across multiple wavelengths and are key to understanding neutron star physics, heavy element formation, and gravitational wave sources. Their optical signature is brighter and shorter-lived than typical supernovae.

Why in news?

The Black Hole Finder app helps users identify potential kilonova events, aiding astronomers in tracking these rare and important cosmic phenomena.

Kodaikanal Solar Observatory

The Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, established in 1899 in Tamil Nadu, is one of the oldest solar observatories in the world. It has continuously recorded solar data for over a century, including sunspot numbers and solar chromospheric images at 393.3 nm wavelength (Ca-K ion). The observatory’s long-term data sets are crucial for studying solar cycles and space weather phenomena. It operates specialized telescopes for solar observations and has contributed to understanding solar activity patterns. Its archives are unique for maintaining uninterrupted solar observations, enabling modern research on solar cycle predictions and the Sun’s magnetic behavior.

Why in news?

The observatory provided 100 years of solar data used by Indian astronomers to discover a new correlation for predicting the amplitude of upcoming solar cycles.

Kodaikanal Tower Tunnel Telescope

The Kodaikanal Tower Tunnel Telescope is a solar telescope located at the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India. It employs a 3-mirror coelostat setup with a primary mirror (M1) that tracks the Sun, a secondary mirror (M2) that redirects sunlight downwards, and a tertiary mirror (M3) that makes the beam horizontal. The telescope uses an achromatic doublet lens with a 38 cm aperture and f/96 focal length, producing a solar image at 36 meters with an image scale of 5.5 arcseconds per millimeter. It enables simultaneous multi-wavelength solar observations, crucial for studying solar magnetic fields.

Why in news?

IIA astronomers used data from this telescope to study magnetic fields in different layers of the solar atmosphere, advancing understanding of solar energy transfer and sunspot structures.

Las Cumbres Observatory (LCO) Network

The Las Cumbres Observatory is a global network of robotic telescopes distributed across multiple continents, allowing continuous monitoring of the night sky. It includes telescopes ranging from 0.4 meters to 2 meters in diameter. LCO’s robotic nature enables rapid response to transient astronomical events, such as supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and kilonovas. The network supports time-domain astronomy by providing coordinated, automated observations that can be triggered remotely. LCO collaborates with many scientific projects and citizen science initiatives, expanding access to cutting-edge astronomical data worldwide.

Why in news?

Users of the Black Hole Finder app can directly trigger follow-up observations with LCO’s 0.4m telescopes to validate candidate black hole and kilonova sources.

Mars Insight Lander

The Mars Insight Lander was a NASA robotic lander mission that touched down on Mars in November 2018. It was equipped primarily with a seismometer called SEIS (Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure) to record seismic activity. Insight operated until December 2022, gathering over 1,300 seismic events including marsquakes and meteorite impacts. Its seismic data helped scientists study the internal structure of Mars, such as crust thickness and mantle properties. Insight was the first mission dedicated to studying the deep interior of Mars rather than its surface or atmosphere.

Why in news?

Insight’s seismic data was crucial for detecting liquid water trapped in fractures 10-20 km deep in Mars’ crust, as revealed by a recent study analyzing these seismic waves.

Marsquakes

Marsquakes are seismic events occurring on Mars, similar to earthquakes on Earth. They are caused by tectonic activity, cooling and contraction of the planet’s interior, or meteorite impacts. The InSight lander recorded over 1,300 Marsquakes between 2018 and 2022, providing valuable data on Mars’ internal structure. Marsquakes are typically weaker than Earthquakes but can reveal the composition and layering of the Martian crust and mantle. They help scientists understand the planet’s geological activity and thermal evolution. Unlike Earth, Mars lacks active plate tectonics, so Marsquakes are primarily due to crustal stress and cooling.

Why in news?

Marsquakes were recorded by NASA’s InSight lander and used to detect a subsurface layer of liquid water in the Martian crust, deepening understanding of Mars’ interior and water cycle.

Microevolution of Monkeypox Virus

Monkeypox virus, a DNA virus, evolves slowly compared to RNA viruses but has undergone microevolution from 2017-2018 through 2022. This process involves gradual accumulation of mutations in key viral proteins, potentially enhancing its ability to infect humans and cause outbreaks. These mutations may result from interactions between the virus and human hosts, though it is unclear which mutations affect disease severity or transmission. The microevolution has contributed to the 2022 multi-country outbreak and altered transmission patterns, including increased human-to-human spread and new sexual transmission routes.

Why in news?

The ongoing microevolution of monkeypox virus is brought into light in 2024 studies explaining the virus’s adaptation to humans and its role in recent outbreaks and changing transmission dynamics.

Microwave Bacteriome

The microwave bacteriome refers to the community of microorganisms living inside microwave ovens. A recent study identified 747 different bacterial genera from domestic, laboratory, and shared-use microwaves. Dominant genera include Bacillus, Micrococcus, and Staphylococcus, commonly found on human skin. Lab microwaves hosted the most diverse bacteria, including extremophiles that tolerate radiation, heat, and dryness. Some bacteria like Klebsiella, Enterococcus, and Aeromonas found in domestic microwaves can pose health risks. The study used culturing and DNA sequencing to identify these microbes, challenging the belief that microwaves kill all bacteria.

Why in news?

A 2024 study revealed that microwave ovens harbor diverse microbial communities, including potentially harmful bacteria, contradicting the assumption that microwave radiation sterilizes these appliances.

Morni (Multimodal Representation for India)

Morni is an AI project by Google DeepMind India focusing on 125 Indian languages and dialects. It aims to develop inclusive Indic AI by addressing the lack of digital data for many languages. India officially recognizes 22 scheduled languages, but Morni targets over 100 languages, including those spoken by over a billion people collectively. The project deals with languages that have little or no digital corpus, such as 73 languages with zero digital data. Morni integrates multiple data types, including text and speech, to build multimodal AI models for better language representation and processing.

Why in news?

Google DeepMind India announced Morni at the Global Fintech Fest in Mumbai as part of its initiative to develop AI models for 125 Indian languages and dialects.

Mortality-to-Incidence Ratio (MIR)

The Mortality-to-Incidence Ratio (MIR) is a measure used in epidemiology to estimate cancer survival by comparing the number of deaths to new cases in a population over a specific period. A higher MIR indicates poorer survival rates. For example, pancreatic cancer has an MIR of 91%, indicating very low survival, while countries with low HDI have MIRs around 74%. MIR varies by cancer type, age group, and region, and is a useful tool for assessing healthcare effectiveness and identifying disparities in cancer outcomes globally.

Why in news?

High MIR values were observed in older men, rare cancers like pancreatic cancer, and countries with low HDI, underscoring survival disparities in cancer care worldwide.

Multi-Cancer Early Detection (MCED) Test

The MCED test is a type of liquid biopsy that detects cancer signals such as circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) and circulating tumour cells (CTCs) released into the blood at early stages. It can identify up to 50 types of cancer, including ovarian, liver, stomach, pancreatic, and esophageal cancers, which lack recommended early screening tests. MCED tests differ from genetic testing as they do not assess inherited genetic risks. They are not yet approved by the U.S. FDA but have received Breakthrough Device Designation. In India, MCED tests are offered as laboratory-developed tests (LDTs) but are not CDSCO-approved. Costs can reach Rs 15,000 per test.

Why in news?

MCED tests are gaining attention as a promising early cancer detection method in India, though regulatory approval and widespread adoption remain limited.

MVA-BN Vaccine

MVA-BN (Modified Vaccinia Ankara-Bavarian Nordic) is a third-generation smallpox vaccine also approved for mpox prevention. It uses a weakened, non-replicating vaccinia virus strain, making it safer than earlier vaccines. MVA-BN is administered in two doses and is approved for use in immunocompromised individuals. It was developed to improve safety profiles while maintaining immunity against orthopoxviruses. The vaccine induces both antibody and T-cell responses and offers cross-protection against monkeypox. Its use is typically targeted at high-risk groups rather than mass vaccination, aligning with WHO recommendations during the mpox outbreak.

Why in news?

MVA-BN is one of three vaccines approved for mpox prevention amid the 2022-2024 global outbreak, with WHO advising targeted vaccination strategies.

Nano Sugar-Insulin System

The nano sugar-insulin system is a second-generation insulin delivery technology developed at Monash University, Australia. It uses tiny particles called nano sugars that combine insulin with a glucose-sensing molecule. These particles are injected under the skin and release insulin only when blood glucose levels exceed a certain threshold. This system functions autonomously, reducing the need for frequent insulin injections in type 1 diabetes patients. The first-generation system demonstrated the ability to detect small glucose changes and respond accordingly. The second generation aims to improve precision and patient convenience by minimizing manual intervention.

Why in news?

The Monash University project received part of £2.7 million in grants to develop next-generation glucose-responsive insulins for type 1 diabetes management.

Nanorods

Nanorods are tiny rod-shaped particles typically measured at the nanoscale, often between 1 and 100 nanometers in length. They exhibit unique optical, electrical, and thermal properties due to their anisotropic shape. Nanorods can be made from metals like iron and aluminum, which are abundant on Mars. They can scatter sunlight and trap heat when dispersed in an atmosphere, influencing climate conditions. Their surface plasmon resonance can be tuned by altering their size and aspect ratio. Nanorods are used in applications ranging from medical imaging to solar energy. The proposed Mars warming strategy involves releasing nanorods as aerosols to enhance the greenhouse effect.

Why in news?

Nanorods are proposed as engineered aerosols to warm Mars by trapping heat and scattering sunlight, potentially raising surface temperatures by 28º C over a decade to aid terraforming efforts.

Nasa-Isro Synthetic Aperture Radar (Nisar) Mission

Nisar is a joint Earth observation satellite mission by Nasa and the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro), planned to launch after February 2025. It carries dual-frequency synthetic aperture radar sensors operating in L-band and S-band frequencies, enabling day-and-night, all-weather imaging. The mission focuses on mapping land surface deformation, ice sheet dynamics, and ecosystem changes globally. It aims to improve disaster response by detecting earthquakes, tsunamis, and landslides. Nisar’s data will be freely available to scientists worldwide. The satellite’s radar system is unique for combining complementary radar bands to enhance environmental monitoring accuracy.

Why in news?

The Nisar mission’s launch has been postponed due to orbital constraints and technical work on its radar antenna reflector, impacting the original 2024 timeline.

NASA’s Mars InSight Lander

The Mars InSight lander, launched in 2018 and retired in 2022, was designed to study Mars’ interior using a seismometer, heat flow probe, and other instruments. It recorded seismic waves from Marsquakes and meteorite impacts, providing unprecedented data on the planet’s crust, mantle, and core. InSight’s seismometer was the first to measure Marsquakes directly, detecting over 1,300 seismic events. The mission helped map underground structures and revealed the presence of liquid water deep below the surface. InSight was NASA’s first mission dedicated to studying the deep interior of Mars.

Why in news?

Data from NASA’s Mars InSight lander enabled the discovery of a large reservoir of liquid water trapped in fractured rock deep in Mars’ crust.

National Space Day (India)

National Space Day in India is observed on August 23 to commemorate the successful moon landing of Chandrayaan-3 in 2023. It celebrates India’s achievements in space exploration and promotes interest in space science and technology. The day marks ISRO’s (Indian Space Research Organisation) role in advancing satellite technology, interplanetary missions, and space research. National Space Day also serves as an occasion for educational events and public outreach. It was officially recognized following Chandrayaan-3’s success, marking India as the fourth country to achieve a soft moon landing.

Why in news?

The Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar awards ceremony is scheduled for August 23, 2024, coinciding with National Space Day to honor Chandrayaan-3’s moon landing.

Negative Leap Second

A negative leap second is a proposed adjustment to atomic timekeeping where one second would be removed to realign Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) with Earth’s rotation. Unlike the positive leap second, which adds a second to compensate for Earth’s slowing rotation, a negative leap second would be needed if Earth’s rotation speeds up. This phenomenon is debated due to Earth’s core and crust dynamics, including post-glacial rebound. No negative leap second has been implemented yet, but it remains a topic among timekeeping authorities as Earth’s rotation fluctuates.

Why in news?

Scientists are discussing the potential delay or need for a negative leap second due to complex influences on Earth’s rotation, including climate change and core dynamics.

Novel Oral Polio Vaccine Type 2 (nOPV2)

The novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2) is a genetically modified vaccine authorized by WHO under Emergency Use Listing in November 2020. It was first deployed in March 2021 and received WHO prequalification in December 2023. nOPV2 is designed to be less likely to revert to neurovirulence compared to the traditional Sabin OPV, reducing the risk of vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks caused by type 2 strains. This vaccine aims to control circulating type 2 VDPV outbreaks while maintaining oral administration advantages such as ease of use and low cost. It represents advancement in polio eradication efforts.

Why in news?

nOPV2 is relevant due to rising vaccine-derived type 2 poliovirus cases and its recent WHO prequalification, offering a safer vaccine option to prevent such outbreaks.

Nuclear Clocks

Nuclear clocks use the nucleus of an atom as the resonator, rather than the whole atom, promising ultra-high precision timekeeping. The thorium-229 isotope is a prime candidate due to its low-energy nuclear transition, which can be excited by lasers. Nuclear clocks could surpass optical atomic clocks by being less sensitive to external electromagnetic disturbances, as the nucleus is shielded by electrons. Recent advances include laser excitation of thorium-229 nuclei, linking nuclear clocks with optical clocks, and precise measurement of excitation energy. Their radiation frequency is about 2,020 terahertz, suggesting unprecedented accuracy potentially missing a second over billions of years.

Why in news?

Recent breakthroughs in nuclear clocks, including laser excitation and energy measurement of thorium-229 nuclei, were reported in 2024, marking progress toward next-generation ultra-precise time standards.

Parvovirus B19

Parvovirus B19 is a member of the Parvoviridae family and primarily infects humans. It is the causative agent of fifth disease, a common childhood illness. The virus targets erythroid progenitor cells in the bone marrow, disrupting red blood cell production. Transmission occurs mainly through respiratory droplets but can also happen via blood transfusions and from mother to fetus. The virus has a unique ability to persist in human tissues for years after infection. Parvovirus B19 was first identified in 1975. It is not covered by any vaccine, and no specific antiviral treatment exists, making symptom management the primary approach.

Why in news?

The CDC warned about a rise in parvovirus B19 infections in the US, especially affecting children, with increased cases reported in Europe earlier in 2024.

Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM)

Piezoresponse Force Microscopy is an atomic force microscopy technique used to study electromechanical properties at the nanoscale. It measures the mechanical deformation of a material in response to an applied electric field, revealing ferroelectric domains and polarization behavior. PFM can map local piezoelectric responses, crucial for understanding materials like ferroelectrics and multiferroics. It provides spatial resolution down to nanometers and can detect subtle changes in polarization. This technique confirmed the ferroelectric nature of CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets, supporting their potential in advanced sensors and optoelectronic devices.

Why in news?

PFM was employed to verify the ferroelectric properties of CsPbBr3 crystals grown by IISER Pune researchers, confirming their suitability for next-generation optoelectronic devices.

Pinpoint Lunar Landing Technology

Pinpoint lunar landing technology enables spacecraft to land within a few meters of a predetermined site on the Moon, improving mission safety and scientific value. SLIM’s mission was a key demonstration of this technology, aiming for landing accuracy under 100 meters. This technology uses terrain-relative navigation, onboard hazard detection, and autonomous control systems to avoid obstacles and select safe landing zones. It is critical for future missions targeting specific lunar features like craters or resource-rich areas. Pinpoint landing reduces risk for rovers and instruments, advancing precision exploration and enabling sustainable lunar bases.

Why in news?

SLIM’s mission showcased Japan’s development of pinpoint landing technology, though the lander’s solar panel misalignment affected its longevity post-landing.

Point Shiv Shakti

Point Shiv Shakti is the designated landing site of the Pragyan rover near the lunar south pole. The name combines Hindu deities Shiv and Shakti, symbolizing energy and power. This site is as it represents the first successful soft landing near the Moon’s south pole, a region previously unexplored by any other nation’s missions. The area is crucial for lunar science due to its permanently shadowed craters that may harbor water ice and other volatiles. The site’s exploration helps understand lunar geology, seismic activity, and atmospheric conditions at high latitudes.

Why in news?

Point Shiv Shakti was the landing site of India’s Chandrayaan-3 Pragyan rover, marking India as the first country to explore the lunar south pole region in August 2023.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is ISRO’s third-generation launch vehicle, first flown in 1994. It is known for its reliability, having completed over 50 successful missions. PSLV can place satellites into low Earth orbits (below 2,000 km) and sun-synchronous orbits. The PSLV-XL variant can carry payloads up to 1,860 kg. It uses a combination of solid and liquid propulsion stages, including a solid first stage and liquid-fueled second stage. PSLV earned the nickname workhorse of ISRO due to its versatility and consistent performance. It has been used for both Indian and international satellite launches.

Why in news?

PSLV is mentioned as a comparison to the newly launched SSLV, denoting differences in payload capacity and launch turnaround time.

Project Vaani

Project Vaani is a collaborative initiative by Google, IISc, and ARTPARK to collect open-source speech data across Indian languages. It has gathered over 14,000 hours of speech data from 80,000 speakers in 80 districts during phase one. The project aims to collect and transcribe 154,000 hours of anonymized speech data from all 773 districts of India. Phase two is underway, expanding coverage to 160 districts across all states. The data supports AI development for underrepresented languages, focusing on speech recognition and transcription.

Why in news?

Project Vaani’s progress was brought into light by Google DeepMind’s director as part of efforts to build digital resources for Indic languages, crucial for AI language model training.

Prototype Pathogen Concept

The Prototype Pathogen concept refers to selecting a representative pathogen within a viral or bacterial family to serve as a model for research and development of medical countermeasures. This approach allows scientists to study one pathogen extensively and apply findings to related pathogens within the same family. It helps accelerate vaccine and therapeutic development, especially for emerging or unknown pathogens (“Pathogen X”). First incorporated in the WHO’s 2024 report, this strategy complements the “Family approach” by focusing resources on families of pathogens rather than individual species, improving preparedness for future epidemics and pandemics.

Why in news?

The WHO’s 2024 Pathogens Prioritization report introduced the Prototype Pathogen concept to enhance global epidemic preparedness by facilitating broader, family-based pathogen research and medical countermeasure development.

Psoriasiform Dermatitis

Psoriasiform dermatitis is a skin condition characterized by red, scaly, itchy patches resembling psoriasis. It causes frequent skin breakdown with small cuts and sores, which can be prone to infection or irritation. The condition can affect various body parts, including feet and back, and may require topical treatments such as corticosteroids or medicated sprays. Psoriasiform dermatitis is not contagious and can be triggered by immune system dysfunction or environmental factors. It is distinct from psoriasis but shares similar clinical features, often requiring dermatological diagnosis for proper management.

Why in news?

Jannik Sinner’s psoriasiform dermatitis led to skin cuts treated with Trofodermin spray, resulting in accidental contamination with Clostebol.

Pushpak (RLV-TD Downscale Vehicle)

Pushpak is a scaled-down version of ISRO’s Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD). It was used in two landing experiments, LEX-02 and LEX-03, conducted on March 22 and June 7, 2024, at the Aeronautical Testing Range in Challakere, Karnataka. The vehicle was dropped from a Chinook helicopter to simulate space landing conditions. In LEX-02, Pushpak was dropped along its landing path, while in LEX-03, it was dropped 500 meters off to one side to test precision landing capabilities. These tests validated ISRO’s approach to reusable spaceplane technology and paved the way for the Orbital Return Flight Experiment (OREX).

Why in news?

Pushpak was recently tested twice in 2024 as part of ISRO’s reusable vehicle development, marking progress toward operational reusable launch vehicles and orbital return missions.

Reverse Thrust in Aircraft Landing

Reverse thrust is a mechanism used by pilots to slow down an aircraft after touchdown by redirecting engine thrust forward instead of backward. It is commonly achieved by deploying thrust reversers on jet engines or propeller pitch changes on turboprops. This method supplements wheel brakes to reduce landing distance and improve safety. Reverse thrust is less effective at high altitudes or in thin air because the reduced air density lowers the amount of thrust generated. Pilots must carefully manage reverse thrust, especially on short runways or in adverse conditions.

Why in news?

The reduced effectiveness of reverse thrust due to thin air at Leh Airport was cited as a factor complicating aircraft landings during the heatwave in July 2024.

Rhumi-1 Rocket

The Rhumi-1 is India’s first reusable hybrid rocket, weighing approximately 80 kilograms and standing 3.5 meters tall. It uses a combination of liquid oxidiser and solid fuel propellant, which enhances efficiency and flexibility. The rocket carries three cube satellites and deploys 50 Pico satellites to monitor atmospheric conditions. It is launched from a mobile launchpad, allowing adaptability to various locations and scenarios. This technology reduces costs and environmental impact compared to traditional rockets, marking a milestone in India’s aerospace sector. The project also aims to inspire student involvement in rocket science.

Why in news?

Rhumi-1 was launched on August 24, 2024, from Chennai’s East Coast Road, marking India’s debut of a reusable hybrid rocket system with mobile launch capability.

Rubble Pile Asteroids

Rubble pile asteroids are aggregates of boulders, rocks, and dust held together by gravity rather than solid rock. Dimorphos is an example, consisting of loosely bound fragments formed from debris after larger asteroid collisions. These bodies often have porous interiors and can be highly susceptible to cracking from thermal stresses caused by day-night temperature changes. Their structure affects how they respond to impacts, often producing more ejecta than solid asteroids. Rubble piles can spin rapidly, causing surface material to migrate and form smaller moons or rings of debris around the primary asteroid.

Why in news?

Dimorphos was confirmed as a rubble pile asteroid by data from the DART mission, revealing new details about asteroid composition and formation.

Ruthenium Isotopes

Ruthenium is a rare transition metal in the platinum group, with atomic number 44. It is extremely scarce in Earth’s crust but more abundant in some meteorites, making it useful for tracing extraterrestrial material. Different isotopes of ruthenium vary in neutron number, allowing scientists to distinguish the origin of asteroids by comparing isotopic ratios. Ruthenium isotopes serve as geochemical fingerprints to identify whether an asteroid formed in the inner or outer Solar System. This method helped confirm that the Chicxulub impactor was a carbonaceous asteroid from beyond Jupiter’s orbit, rather than a silicate-rich inner Solar System body.

Why in news?

Scientists analyzed ruthenium isotopes from Chicxulub crater samples to determine the origin of the asteroid that caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Salt Dome Storage

Salt domes are large underground deposits of salt that have moved upward through surrounding rock layers, creating cavernous spaces. They are impermeable to gases and liquids, making them suitable for storing hydrogen, natural gas, and other fuels. The salt’s plasticity allows it to self-seal fractures, maintaining storage integrity over time. Salt dome storage is used in energy industries to balance supply and demand and to stabilize fuel distribution. Such storage reduces risks of leaks and contamination compared to other underground options. The technology has been applied in the U.S. and Europe for decades but is now gaining attention for hydrogen storage.

Why in news?

Salt dome storage is referenced as the chosen method for storing hydrogen in Hy Stor Energy’s upcoming Mississippi project, denoting its role in emerging hydrogen infrastructure.

Satish Dhawan Space Centre

Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) is ISRO’s primary launch center located in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. It was formerly known as Sriharikota Range (SHAR) before being renamed in 2002 after Dr. Satish Dhawan, a pioneer of Indian space research. SDSC covers over 145 square kilometers and includes multiple launch pads, vehicle assembly buildings, and tracking facilities. It supports launches of PSLV, GSLV, and SSLV vehicles. The center is situated on an island between the Bay of Bengal and Pulicat Lake, providing a safe downrange area for rocket stages. SDSC plays a critical role in India’s space exploration and satellite deployment programs.

Why in news?

SDSC was the launch site for ISRO’s third developmental SSLV flight (SSLV-D3) on August 16, 2024.

Search Labs Experiment

Search Labs is a Google initiative allowing users to test and provide feedback on experimental search features before wide release. It serves as a testing ground for innovations like AI Overviews, enabling real-world user interaction and data collection to refine AI models. Users in countries without full AI Overview access can join Search Labs to experience new functionalities early. The program helps Google identify bugs, usability issues, and user preferences. Search Labs encourages iterative improvements by incorporating diverse feedback, ensuring features meet broad user needs before official launch. It reflects Google’s approach to responsible AI deployment through gradual rollout and testing.

Why in news?

Search Labs is mentioned as the platform where users can try AI Overviews in countries where the feature has not yet been fully rolled out.

Shiv-Shakti Point

Shiv-Shakti Point is a lunar landing site near the Moon’s South Pole where India’s Chandrayaan-3 successfully soft-landed. This region is of high scientific interest due to its potential deposits of frozen water ice, which is critical for future lunar habitation and fuel production. Unlike the Apollo missions that landed near the equator, this site offers uncharted terrain for exploration. The South Pole’s permanently shadowed craters have extremely low temperatures, preserving volatile compounds. The site is also targeted by NASA’s Artemis program for establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon.

Why in news?

Shiv-Shakti Point gained global attention as the landing site of Chandrayaan-3, marking India’s first successful soft landing on the lunar South Pole in August 2023, opening new avenues for lunar exploration.

SiC UV Dosimeter

The SiC UV Dosimeter is a sensor built using silicon carbide (SiC) semiconductor technology to monitor ultraviolet (UV) radiation levels. SiC material enables high radiation tolerance and stability under harsh space conditions. This dosimeter measures UV irradiance at the viewport of crew modules, such as those used in ISRO’s Gaganyaan human spaceflight mission. It also functions as a high-dose alarm sensor for gamma radiation, providing critical safety data for crewed missions. The compact, robust design allows continuous monitoring of high-energy radiation exposure, contributing to astronaut health and mission safety during spaceflight.

Why in news?

The SiC UV Dosimeter is one of three payloads onboard the SSLV-D3-EOS-08 satellite, supporting radiation monitoring relevant to future crewed space missions.

Silver Sulfadiazine

Silver sulfadiazine is a topical antimicrobial agent used primarily to prevent and treat infections in burn wounds. It releases silver ions that are toxic to bacteria and fungi. It is often combined with antiseptics or aloe vera in topical formulations. Despite its widespread use, some FDCs containing silver sulfadiazine and other agents have been banned due to irrational combinations that lack proven efficacy or safety data. Silver sulfadiazine has been a standard burn treatment for decades but requires careful use to avoid potential side effects such as argyria or allergic reactions.

Why in news?

Silver sulfadiazine combined with antiseptic agents and aloe extract was included in the list of banned fixed-dose combinations by the Government of India in August 2024.

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is India’s smallest rocket developed by ISRO, standing about 34 meters tall. It is designed to carry payloads up to 500 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at altitudes up to 500 km. SSLV aims to provide rapid, cost-effective launch services for small satellites, enabling quicker turnaround times than larger rockets like PSLV or GSLV. The SSLV-D3 mission marked the final developmental flight, paving the way for commercial launches through NewSpace India Ltd. Its modular design supports various payload configurations, promoting flexibility for scientific, commercial, and defense applications.

Why in news?

ISRO commenced the countdown and planned the launch of the SSLV-D3-EOS-08 mission on August 16, 2024, marking the final development flight of the SSLV rocket series.

Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM)

The Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) is a Japanese uncrewed lunar lander developed by JAXA, launched to achieve a precise landing on the Moon. It aimed to demonstrate pinpoint landing technology with an accuracy of less than 100 meters. SLIM touched down in January 2024, making Japan the fifth country to perform a soft lunar landing. The mission included scientific observations of the lunar surface and mantle through a high-spec camera and probes. Despite an improper landing angle causing solar panel misalignment, SLIM survived multiple lunar nights, transmitting data longer than expected before communication was lost in August 2024.

Why in news?

JAXA ended the SLIM mission after losing communication with the lander following three lunar nights, concluding an extended operational period beyond initial expectations.

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA)

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord, leading to progressive muscle wasting and weakness. It is caused by mutations in the SMN1 gene, which results in insufficient survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. SMA has several types, classified by age of onset and severity, ranging from infantile to adult forms. It is one of the leading genetic causes of infant mortality. Treatments include gene therapy and SMN-enhancing drugs. The rarity of SMA makes clinical trials challenging due to limited patient populations globally and especially in India.

Why in news?

SMA is mentioned as one of the rare diseases for which drug trial waivers will allow faster access to new treatments in India.

Spiny Rat (Tokudaia genus)

The spiny rat, specifically from the genus Tokudaia found in Japan, has lost its Y chromosome and the SRY gene, which normally determines male sex in mammals. Instead, it evolved a new male-determining gene located on other chromosomes. This adaptation is rare among mammals, as most rely on the Y chromosome for sex determination. The relocation of Y-linked genes to autosomes helps maintain male development despite the absence of the Y chromosome. The spiny rat’s unique sex-determining system offers vital information about alternative genetic mechanisms for sex determination beyond the typical XY system.

Why in news?

The spiny rat is in the news due to a 2022 study revealing its evolved new male-determining gene, providing hope for understanding alternatives to the disappearing Y chromosome in humans.

SRY Gene

The SRY (Sex-determining Region Y) gene, discovered in 1990, is located on the Y chromosome and initiates male development by activating the SOX9 gene. SOX9, not on sex chromosomes, is essential for male differentiation in all vertebrates. Around 12 weeks post-conception, SRY triggers testis formation and testosterone production, leading to male characteristics. Loss or mutation of SRY can cause sex reversal or disorders of sexual development. Its presence or absence is the primary determinant of mammalian sex. The gene’s function is highly conserved, but some species have evolved alternative sex-determining genes.

Why in news?

The SRY gene is mentioned due to concerns about the Y chromosome’s disappearance and the search for new sex-determining genes in species like the spiny rat.

Statio Shiv Shakti

Statio Shiv Shakti is the designated landing site of the Vikram lander and Pragyan rover on the moon’s south pole region. It is located approximately 300 km from the South Pole-Aitken Basin, the largest known impact crater in the solar system. The site was chosen for its scientific value, as it is believed to contain a mixture of anorthosite and magnesium-rich debris excavated by meteor impacts. The name “Shiv Shakti” reflects Indian cultural heritage, symbolizing divine power and energy. The location’s unique terrain and mineral composition make it crucial for understanding lunar geology and the moon’s formation.

Why in news?

Statio Shiv Shakti served as the Chandrayaan-3 lander’s touchdown point, enabling Pragyan rover’s exploration and soil analysis near the lunar south pole, expanding lunar geological knowledge.

Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 2 (L2)

The Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 2 is one of five positions where the gravitational forces of the Earth and the Sun balance the orbital motion of a satellite. Located about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth on the opposite side of the Sun, L2 allows spacecraft to maintain a stable position relative to Earth and the Sun with minimal fuel consumption. It provides an excellent environment for space telescopes like JWST due to its stable thermal conditions and uninterrupted view of deep space. L2 is also used for other missions, including the Gaia observatory and the upcoming Euclid telescope.

Why in news?

JWST arrived at the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 2 in January 2022, where it has been conducting deep space observations, leading to new puzzling findings about the early Universe.

Telomerase

Telomerase is an enzyme that can extend telomeres by adding repetitive DNA sequences to chromosome ends, counteracting telomere shortening. Discovered in the 1980s, telomerase is active primarily in cancer cells, allowing them to divide indefinitely and evade the Hayflick limit. It is present but inactive in most normal somatic cells. Laboratory synthesis of telomerase has shown potential to slow telomere loss in vitro, but practical clinical applications remain distant. Telomerase’s role links aging, cancer, and cellular immortality in molecular biology.

Why in news?

Telomerase is discussed as part of the scientific context surrounding Hayflick’s discovery and the biological mechanisms of aging and cancer.

Telomeres

Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences located at the ends of chromosomes that protect genetic data during cell division. Each division shortens telomeres, eventually leading to cell senescence when they become critically short. Despite their protective role, the length of telomeres does not directly correlate with lifespan; for example, mice have telomeres five times longer than humans but live 40 times less. Telomere shortening is a biological marker of aging but may be a symptom rather than a cause. Telomeres were discovered in the 1970s and remain central to aging and cancer research.

Why in news?

Telomeres are mentioned in connection with Hayflick’s discovery of cellular division limits and ongoing research into aging mechanisms.

Tranexamic Acid

Tranexamic acid is an anti-fibrinolytic agent that prevents excessive bleeding by inhibiting the breakdown of blood clots. It is used in surgeries, trauma, and heavy menstrual bleeding. It is sometimes combined with mefenamic acid, a pain reliever for menstrual cramps, though such combinations have been banned due to questionable therapeutic benefit. Tranexamic acid is on the WHO’s List of Essential Medicines. It is administered orally, intravenously, or topically depending on the indication and has a well-established safety profile when used appropriately.

Why in news?

A combination of tranexamic acid with mefenamic acid was among the fixed-dose combinations banned by the Government of India for lacking therapeutic justification.

Tube Hydroforming

Tube hydroforming is a metal forming process where a tube is expanded into a die shape by injecting high-pressure fluid, typically water. This allows complex, lightweight, and strong automotive parts to be made without welding multiple components. The process reduces weight and manufacturing costs while increasing structural integrity. One notable example is the Corvette’s aluminum frame rail, the largest hydroformed part globally, which saved 20% mass compared to the steel equivalent. Hydroforming enables precise shaping and improved mechanical properties by avoiding weld seams and stress concentrations. It is widely used in modern automotive and aerospace industries for chassis and structural components.

Why in news?

Tube hydroforming is brought into light as a key modern manufacturing technique contributing to lightweight vehicle construction and improved safety.

Ursodeoxycholic Acid and Metformin HCl Combination

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a bile acid used to treat gallstones and certain liver diseases, while Metformin HCl is a first-line medication for type 2 diabetes. Their combination is sometimes prescribed to manage fatty liver disease in diabetic patients, aiming to improve liver function and insulin sensitivity. However, clinical evidence supporting the combined use is limited and inconclusive. Potential risks include drug interactions and side effects without clear added benefit. Regulatory bodies have questioned the therapeutic rationale of this FDC, leading to scrutiny and bans in some regions due to safety concerns and lack of proven efficacy.

Why in news?

The combination of ursodeoxycholic acid and metformin HCl was included in the banned FDC list due to concerns over its therapeutic justification and potential health risks.

Vehicle Tracking Platform (VTP)

The Vehicle Tracking Platform (VTP) is a technology-driven system implemented in India to monitor and track vehicles in real time. It integrates GPS and communication technologies to enhance security and management of vehicles, especially public and emergency transport. Monitoring Centres using VTP have been commissioned in 11 States/UTs including Bihar and West Bengal. The platform helps law enforcement agencies track suspicious or stolen vehicles, improve traffic management, and respond quickly to emergencies. VTP supports integration with other safety systems to ensure coordinated responses across regions.

Why in news?

VTP Monitoring Centres were recently commissioned in 11 Indian States/UTs as part of safety and security infrastructure upgrades under the Nirbhaya Fund projects.

Velocity Trimming Module (VTM)

The Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) is a liquid propulsion-based terminal stage used in ISRO’s Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV). It fine-tunes the vehicle’s velocity to precisely place satellites into their intended orbits. The VTM provides adjustments after the three solid propulsion stages complete their burn, enabling greater accuracy in satellite deployment. It uses liquid propellants, unlike the solid stages, allowing variable thrust control. This system reduces orbital insertion errors and enhances mission flexibility. The VTM is crucial for handling multiple small satellites or complex orbital requirements. It represents a hybrid propulsion approach combining solid and liquid stages in SSLV design.

Why in news?

The VTM was a key component in the successful SSLV-D3 launch by ISRO on August 16, 2024, enabling precise Earth observation satellite placement.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)

VSAT is a satellite communication system that uses a small dish antenna, typically less than 3 meters in diameter, to provide data, voice, and video services. It operates via geostationary satellites and supports remote and rural connectivity where terrestrial infrastructure is limited. VSAT networks are used by enterprises, governments, and military for private communication. The term VSAT CUG refers to Closed User Group VSAT, which allows a restricted set of users to communicate securely over the satellite network. VSAT technology supports applications like banking, oil and gas monitoring, and disaster recovery communications. It functions in the Ku, C, and Ka frequency bands.

Why in news?

TRAI sought feedback on merging authorisations for VSAT Closed User Group (CUG) and GMPCS under the new Telecommunications Act, 2023, as part of its consultation on service authorisation frameworks.

Virus Operational Taxonomic Units (vOTUs)

Virus Operational Taxonomic Units (vOTUs) are a classification method used to group viral genomes based on genetic similarity, analogous to species-level classification in other organisms. vOTUs help scientists organize viral diversity, especially for uncultivated viruses found in environmental samples like ice cores or ocean water. This approach is crucial for studying viruses that cannot be grown in labs. The use of vOTUs has expanded with metagenomic sequencing, enabling the identification of thousands of novel viral genomes in ecosystems previously unexplored, such as glaciers, soils, and deep oceans.

Why in news?

The research team identified approximately 1,700 vOTUs from the Guliya Glacier ice core, increasing the known diversity of ancient glacier viruses.

Vyomitra

Vyomitra is a female half humanoid robot designed by ISRO for the uncrewed Gaganyaan mission planned in 2025. It features movable arms, a torso, face, and neck and functions autonomously in space to assist astronauts by performing repetitive or hazardous tasks like operating crew consoles and monitoring systems. Vyomitra is a technology demonstrator to evaluate the impact of space travel on humans and to test robotic capabilities before India’s first crewed mission later in 2025. The humanoid is controlled from Earth and is part of ISRO’s efforts to integrate robotics in space missions.

Why in news?

Vyomitra is set to fly on ISRO’s 2025 Gaganyaan uncrewed mission to demonstrate robotic technology and support future human spaceflights.

Wootz Steel

Wootz steel is an ancient Indian steel known for its high quality and distinctive patterns, produced by heating iron with charcoal in a sealed clay crucible. It originated over 2,000 years ago and was exported widely, including to the Roman Empire. The steel’s unique microstructure, containing carbon nanotubes and cementite nanowires, gave it exceptional strength and sharpness. Wootz steel swords were highly prized in ancient warfare for their durability and ability to hold an edge. The technique declined by the 18th century but influenced modern metallurgy and Damascus steel production. Its exact manufacturing process was lost and rediscovered through modern scientific analysis.

Why in news?

Wootz steel is referenced as an early example of innovative steelmaking, contrasting ancient techniques with modern advanced high-strength steels used in automotive manufacturing .

X- and C-shaped Charged Particles in the Ionosphere

X- and C-shaped charged particle formations are plasma structures found in the Earth’s ionosphere. These shapes were first noticed after solar storms but have also been observed during quiet periods, suggesting localized atmospheric drivers. The ionosphere is a layer filled with charged particles that facilitate radio wave propagation. These alphabet-shaped structures can scatter or absorb radio signals, causing disruptions in satellite communication and GPS navigation. Their dynamic behavior influences the accuracy and reliability of global positioning and communication systems. The exact mechanisms forming these shapes remain under investigation, with recent studies linking them to complex ionospheric plasma processes.

Why in news?

NASA’s GOLD mission has unambiguously detected these X- and C-shaped charged particles, denoting their role in signal disruptions affecting communication and navigation satellites.

XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite)

XPoSat is India’s first dedicated space-based X-ray polarimetry observatory, launched on January 1, 2024. It carries two instruments, XSPECT and POLIX, which measure the polarization of cosmic X-ray sources to understand radiation mechanisms. XPoSat is the second such satellite globally after NASA’s IXPE (Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer) launched in 2021. It studied a solar storm in May 2024 in coordination with ground observatories and lunar orbiting spacecraft. XPoSat’s data helps in understanding the magnetic fields and geometries of cosmic sources such as neutron stars, black holes, and solar flares.

Why in news?

XPoSat recently completed its first year in orbit and contributed to solar storm studies, enhancing India’s capabilities in space-based astrophysics research.

International Relations & Organizations

2+2 Ministerial Dialogue

The 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue is a diplomatic format involving simultaneous talks between the foreign and defense ministers of two countries. It aims to deepen bilateral security and strategic cooperation by addressing both diplomatic and military issues in one forum. India has established this dialogue format with only a few countries, including the United States, Australia, Russia, and Japan. The dialogue facilitates coordinated policy decisions, joint initiatives, and enhanced defense collaboration. It is for aligning strategic interests, especially in regions like the Indo-Pacific, where geopolitical competition is intense.

Why in news?

India and Japan held the 3rd edition of their “2+2” Ministerial Dialogue in Delhi to strengthen their strategic and defense partnership amid regional security challenges.

Act East Policy

India’s Act East Policy is a diplomatic initiative aimed at enhancing economic, strategic, and cultural relations with the Asia-Pacific region, especially Southeast Asia and East Asia. Launched in 2014, it evolved from the earlier Look East Policy, expanding India’s engagement beyond economic ties to include security, defense, and people-to-people connections. The policy emphasizes connectivity, trade, and regional cooperation to counterbalance China’s influence in the Indo-Pacific. It also supports India’s vision of a free, open, and rules-based regional order. The Act East Policy involves partnerships with ASEAN, Japan, Australia, and other regional players.

Why in news?

India’s partnership with Japan in the Indo-Pacific is described as a natural extrapolation of its Act East Policy, reinforcing regional stability and cooperation.

Akhaura-Agartala Cross-Border Rail Link

The Akhaura-Agartala rail link is a cross-border railway connection inaugurated in November 2023, linking Agartala in India’s Tripura state with Akhaura in Bangladesh. It is the sixth cross-border rail line between the two countries and reduces travel time between Agartala and Kolkata from 31 hours to 10 hours. This rail link provides an alternate route to India’s Northeast, bypassing the narrow Chicken’s Neck corridor, and aims to boost tourism, trade, and people-to-people exchanges. The project is part of broader infrastructure cooperation involving $8 billion in Indian credit lines for Bangladesh’s transport development.

Why in news?

The Akhaura-Agartala rail link was inaugurated in November 2023, marking milestone in India-Bangladesh connectivity and boosting trade and travel between the two nations.

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)

The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994 as a platform for security dialogue in Asia-Pacific, involving 27 participants including ASEAN members, the US, China, Russia, and the EU. It focuses on confidence-building measures and preventive diplomacy to reduce conflict risks. ARF meetings address issues like maritime security, counter-terrorism, and disaster relief cooperation. It operates through ministerial meetings, senior officials’ meetings, and working groups. ARF is the only multilateral security dialogue in Asia-Pacific that includes all major powers in the region. It supports ASEAN’s central role in regional security architecture and promotes transparency among members.

Why in news?

ARF was referenced as a key multilateral forum where India and Indonesia discussed cooperation to combat terrorism and related security threats during their recent counter-terrorism meeting.

G4 Countries

The G4 countries are Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, which collectively advocate for reforms in the U.N. Security Council to gain permanent membership status. The group proposes expanding the Council from 15 to 25-26 members, including six new permanent seats. Of these, two permanent seats would be allocated to African states, two to Asia Pacific, one to Latin America and the Caribbean, and one to West European and Other States. The G4 supports extending veto rights to all permanent members, new and old, aligning with the Common African Position. They emphasize correcting historical underrepresentation in global governance.

Why in news?

The G4 countries made a joint statement at the U.N. Security Council High-Level Debate on August 12, 2024, pushing for reforms that increase representation, especially for Africa and Asia Pacific, ahead of the upcoming U.N. General Assembly session.

Gujral Doctrine

The Gujral Doctrine is a foreign policy initiative named after Prime Minister of India I.K. Gujral (1997-1998). It emphasizes unilateral concessions to neighboring countries without expecting reciprocity, aiming to build trust and improve regional relations. Key principles include respecting neighbors’ territorial integrity, non-interference in internal affairs, and promoting economic cooperation. The doctrine sought to reduce tensions with countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal by offering goodwill gestures. It was unique in South Asian diplomacy for prioritizing peace and stability over strict quid pro quo arrangements. The doctrine influenced India’s approach to bilateral relations during Gujral’s tenure and beyond.

Why in news?

The Gujral Doctrine was referenced in the context of I.K. Gujral’s 1997 Independence Day speech, where he announced concessions to neighboring countries and reaffirmed India’s territorial integrity and security policies.

India-Poland Diplomatic Relations Since 1979

India and Poland established diplomatic relations in 1954, but the last Prime Minister of India visit before 2024 was in 1979. The 2024 visit by PM Narendra Modi marked the first in 45 years, coinciding with the 70th anniversary of bilateral ties. Poland has been Central European partner for India, especially in trade, manufacturing, and defence. Over the decades, both countries have cooperated in education, culture, and technology. Poland’s strategic location and its support for Ukraine have increased its geopolitical importance for India’s European engagement. The revitalization of ties aims to elevate cooperation to a new strategic level.

Why in news?

PM Modi’s 2024 visit to Poland was the first by an Prime Minister of India since 1979, marking a milestone in India-Poland relations amid the Ukraine crisis.

India-Ukraine Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC)

The India-Ukraine Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC) is a bilateral platform established to enhance cooperation in trade, economic relations, and other sectors between the two countries. It facilitates dialogue, policy coordination, and implementation of joint projects. The IGC covers diverse areas including agriculture, pharmaceuticals, defence, education, and culture. It plays a key role in rebuilding and expanding bilateral trade, especially after the 2022 Russia-Ukraine war which disrupted economic ties. The commission also focuses on removing trade barriers and promoting investments. It meets regularly, co-chaired by officials from both governments, to review progress and set new priorities.

Why in news?

The IGC was tasked by India and Ukraine’s leaders to focus on restoring and expanding bilateral trade and economic relations following disruptions caused by the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

India’s Ministry of External Affairs Secretary (West)

The Secretary (West) in India’s Ministry of External Affairs is a senior bureaucratic position responsible for managing India’s diplomatic relations with countries in the western hemisphere, including Europe, the Americas, and parts of Africa. This role involves overseeing bilateral and multilateral engagements, trade relations, and strategic partnerships. The Secretary (West) works closely with Indian embassies and consulates to implement foreign policy objectives. The position is crucial in balancing India’s interests amid global geopolitical tensions, such as those involving Russia, Ukraine, and Western countries. It also involves coordinating India’s stance on international conflicts and sanctions.

Why in news?

The Secretary (West), Tanmaya Lal, spoke about the historic nature of Modi’s visit to Ukraine and India’s diplomatic approach amid the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

International Seabed Authority (ISA)

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an autonomous international organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1994. It regulates mineral-related activities in the ocean floor beyond national jurisdiction, known as the “common heritage of mankind.” Headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, ISA issues exploration licenses and develops rules for deep-sea mining. It currently represents 169 countries. ISA aims to finalize legally binding regulations for deep-sea mining by 2025. It balances interests between mining companies and environmental protection but faces divisions over environmental safeguards and monitoring.

Why in news?

ISA is currently negotiating global rules for deep-sea mining in Jamaica, with a deadline set for 2025 to create legally binding regulations to manage ocean-floor mining activities.

Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Limpiyadhura Disputed Areas

Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Limpiyadhura are tri-junction border areas claimed by both India and Nepal. These territories lie at the intersection of India, Nepal, and China near the strategic Lipulekh Pass, a key trade route to Tibet. The dispute intensified after India released a new political map in 2019 including these areas within its territory. Nepal contests this, citing historical treaties and maps. The region is mountainous and sparsely populated but holds strategic military and trade importance. Diplomatic talks have been ongoing, but no final resolution has been reached. The dispute affects Indo-Nepal relations and regional stability.

Why in news?

Nepal’s recent strong objections and claims over these territories have heightened tensions with India, impacting bilateral relations.

Khulna-Mongla Port Rail Line

The Khulna-Mongla Port rail line is a rail connection inaugurated in November 2023, linking Khulna city to Mongla Port in Bangladesh. Mongla Port is the country’s second-largest seaport and a key gateway for trade. This rail line enhances the port’s cargo handling capacity and facilitates smoother movement of goods to and from India’s Northeast region. It complements India’s use of Mongla Port under bilateral agreements to ease cargo transit and reduce transportation costs. The project is part of India’s extended credit lines totaling $8 billion for Bangladesh’s transport infrastructure development.

Why in news?

The Khulna-Mongla Port rail line was inaugurated alongside the Akhaura-Agartala link in November 2023 to improve trade logistics between India and Bangladesh.

Multilateral Crew Operations Panel (MCOP)

The Multilateral Crew Operations Panel (MCOP) is a collaborative international body overseeing crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS). It includes representatives from NASA, Roscosmos, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, European Space Agency, and Canadian Space Agency. MCOP evaluates and approves crew assignments, ensuring safety, compatibility, and mission coordination among partner agencies. It was established to manage the complex logistics of multinational crews aboard the ISS and to maintain operational standards. The panel plays a key role in approving new astronauts, such as those from India’s Gaganyaan mission, for participation in ISS expeditions.

Why in news?

MCOP must approve the Indian astronauts Shubhanshu Shukla and Prashanth Nair for their upcoming joint India-U.S. mission to the ISS in 2024.

Nine-Dash Line

The nine-dash line was first introduced in 1947 by the Kuomintang government of China as an eleven-dash line, later reduced to nine dashes in 1953 by the CCP-led government. It encloses nearly 90% of the South China Sea, extending up to 2,000 km from the Chinese mainland. The line is based on China’s claim of historical maritime rights, but China has never officially published its precise coordinates. The line overlaps with the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of several Southeast Asian countries and is not recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which China has signed but interprets differently.

Why in news?

The nine-dash line is central to the ongoing South China Sea dispute, with recent clashes between China and the Philippines denoting tensions over territorial claims within this boundary.

Rail Force One

Rail Force One is a specially designated train used for official travel, notably by Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his 2024 visit from Poland to Ukraine. The journey covers approximately 10 hours each way, symbolizing diplomatic gesture amid ongoing conflict in Ukraine. The train represents an alternative, secure mode of transport in a region with disrupted air travel due to war. The use of Rail Force One for a high-profile diplomatic visit during wartime is unprecedented, emphasizing the importance of India-Ukraine relations and the logistical challenges posed by the conflict.

Why in news?

PM Modi will travel from Warsaw to Kyiv on Rail Force One during his 2024 visit, marking a notable diplomatic and logistical event during the Ukraine conflict.

Salma Dam (Afghanistan-India Friendship Dam)

The Salma Dam, also known as the Afghanistan-India Friendship Dam, is a hydroelectric and irrigation dam on the Hari River in Herat province, Afghanistan. Completed in 2016 with Indian funding and expertise, it has a capacity of 42 megawatts and irrigates approximately 75,000 hectares of farmland. The dam helps control flooding, provides drinking water, and generates electricity for the region. It represents one of the largest infrastructure projects funded by India in Afghanistan and symbolizes bilateral cooperation. The dam’s construction faced delays due to security challenges and logistical issues in the region.

Why in news?

The Salma Dam is mentioned as part of India’s infrastructure projects in Afghanistan, where Kalpataru Projects International has involvement.

World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)

The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1967 to promote the protection of intellectual property worldwide. It administers 26 international treaties related to patents, trademarks, copyrights, and designs. WIPO’s headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. It operates the Global Brand Database and the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) system, which simplifies patent filings across multiple countries. WIPO also provides technical assistance and policy advice to developing countries to strengthen their intellectual property systems. It publishes annual reports on global IP trends and maintains the International Classification of Goods and Services (Nice Classification).

Why in news?

WIPO released the first-ever data on intangible investments for India, denoting the country’s rapid growth in intellectual property and innovation between 2011 and 2020.

Social Development & Government Schemes

Action Research and Studies on Judicial Reforms Scheme

The Action Research and Studies on Judicial Reforms is a government scheme under the Department of Justice, Ministry of Law and Justice. It funds empirical research projects aimed at identifying challenges and proposing reforms within the Indian judicial system. The scheme supports academic institutions, think tanks, and research bodies to conduct studies on various aspects such as infrastructure, case management, judicial processes, and technology adoption. Its objective is to generate evidence-based recommendations to improve judicial efficiency, transparency, and accessibility. The scheme plays a vital role in shaping policy decisions and reform initiatives at the national and state levels.

Why in news?

The 2024 district court infrastructure report was prepared under this scheme, denoting critical deficiencies and reform needs.

Altruistic Surrogacy

Altruistic surrogacy involves a woman carrying a pregnancy without monetary compensation beyond medical expenses. It is typically arranged among close relatives to avoid commercial exploitation. In India, the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 prohibits commercial surrogacy and promotes altruistic surrogacy to protect surrogate mothers and children. The surrogate mother is genetically unrelated to the child and agrees to hand over the child to the intending parents. Violations can result in fines up to ₹10 lakh and imprisonment up to ten years. This form of surrogacy emphasizes ethical practices and familial consent in assisted reproduction.

Why in news?

The Bombay High Court ruling clarified parental rights in a case involving twins born through altruistic surrogacy, emphasizing the surrogate mother’s lack of parental claim under Indian law.

AMRUT 2.0

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0 is an urban development initiative launched in 2021 to provide tap water supply to all households across 4,800 statutory towns in India. It follows the first AMRUT mission, which covered 500 cities. The mission has a total estimated outlay of Rs 2.99 lakh crore with Central assistance of Rs 66,750 crore from 2021-22 to 2025-26. It focuses on water supply, sewage treatment, rejuvenation of water bodies, parks, groundwater recharge, and urban flood mitigation. By 2024, about 50% of projects were yet to start on the ground.

Why in news?

AMRUT 2.0 projects worth Rs 5,000 crore are set to start soon as part of the NDA government’s 100-day agenda during its third term.

Arunthathiyars

Arunthathiyars are a sub-caste group within the Scheduled Castes predominantly found in Tamil Nadu. They are historically among the most marginalized Dalit communities in the region, often engaged in menial labor and facing severe social discrimination. Due to their disadvantaged status, the Tamil Nadu government enacted a law in 2009 to provide a separate sub-quota for Arunthathiyars in education and public employment. This sub-quota was aimed at ensuring equitable representation and addressing intra-SC disparities. The Supreme Court has reviewed this measure in the context of the broader debate over sub-classification of Scheduled Castes.

Why in news?

Tamil Nadu’s 2009 law granting a sub-quota for Arunthathiyars was challenged in the Supreme Court, prompting a larger Bench to reconsider the legality of sub-classification within Scheduled Castes.

Aspirational Districts Programme

The Aspirational Districts Programme was launched by the Government of India in 2018 to rapidly transform underdeveloped districts through targeted interventions. It focuses on improving health, education, agriculture, and infrastructure metrics using data-driven governance and collaboration between central and state governments. The programme covers 112 districts across India, selected based on poor socio-economic indicators. Progress is tracked monthly via a dashboard. The initiative encourages innovation and best practice sharing among districts, aiming to reduce regional disparities and improve quality of life for marginalized communities.

Why in news?

Six aspirational districts, including East Singhbhum and Kalahandi, will benefit from the new railway projects approved in August 2024 to enhance connectivity and development.

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

AMRUT was launched in 2015 by the National Democratic Alliance government to replace JNNURM. It focuses on improving urban infrastructure, including water supply, sewerage, and green spaces in 500 cities. The mission aims to provide basic urban services and promote sustainable urbanization. AMRUT encourages states to implement reforms linked to central funding, such as reducing stamp duty. The mission has a budget of over ₹77,000 crore and emphasizes citizen participation and technology use. It also supports urban transport improvements and aims to increase the quality of life in urban areas through better governance and infrastructure.

Why in news?

The 2024-25 Union Budget links stamp duty reforms to urban development schemes like AMRUT, pushing states to reduce rates to receive central assistance.

Ayushman Bharat Yojana

Ayushman Bharat Yojana is a flagship public health insurance scheme launched by the Government of India in 2018. It aims to provide health coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family annually for secondary and tertiary hospitalization to over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families. The scheme integrates two components – Health and Wellness Centres for primary care and the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) for hospitalization coverage. It is the world’s largest government-funded health insurance program. The scheme has increased healthcare accessibility and reduced out-of-pocket expenditure for low-income groups, especially in rural areas.

Why in news?

Ayushman Bharat is credited with reducing the economic burden of hospitalization on India’s poorest 50%, improving healthcare affordability over the last decade.

Balmiki Community

The Balmiki community is a Scheduled Caste group primarily found in Punjab and other northern state of Indias. Traditionally, they have been engaged in sanitation and manual scavenging work. The community is named after the sage Valmiki, author of the Ramayana. Despite reservation benefits, Balmikis remain economically and educationally backward. In Punjab, they were given special preference in reservation policies through the 1975 notification and later laws. They have distinct cultural practices and festivals linked to their historical identity. The community continues to seek greater representation and benefits under sub-categorisation of Scheduled Castes to address persistent inequalities within the group.

Why in news?

Balmikis were among the groups given preferential status under Punjab’s sub-categorisation reservation scheme, which the Supreme Court recently upheld, allowing states to sub-divide Scheduled Castes for targeted reservation benefits.

Bhishm Cubes

Bhishm cubes are mobile hospital units developed under India’s Project Aarogya Maitri to provide emergency medical care in conflict or disaster zones. Each cube measures 15 inches and weighs up to 20 kg, allowing individual transport. The cubes contain essential medicines and equipment for trauma, bleeding, burns, fractures, shock, triage, and basic surgeries. They can generate limited power and oxygen and are designed for multi-modal transport by air, sea, land, or drone. India gifted four Bhishm cubes to Ukraine as humanitarian aid during the ongoing war with Russia, aiming to enhance rapid medical response capabilities in affected areas.

Why in news?

India presented four Bhishm cubes to Ukraine during PM Narendra Modi’s August 2024 visit as part of humanitarian assistance amid the Russia-Ukraine war.

Block-level Functionaries in MGNREGA

Block-level functionaries in India’s rural administrative system are responsible for implementing schemes like MGNREGA at the local level. They register work demands, allocate jobs, and maintain records. However, their role often faces criticism for inefficiency or deliberate underreporting, especially in recording demand for work, which affects the disbursement of unemployment allowances. These functionaries act as intermediaries between beneficiaries and State governments, influencing the accuracy of data on rural employment demand and supply. Their administrative performance directly impacts the effectiveness of welfare schemes in rural India.

Why in news?

The Economic Survey 2024 brought into light that block-level functionaries may not register employment demand in real time to avoid State liability for unemployment allowance, contributing to underpayment issues.

Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysuru

The Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) was established in 1969 under the Ministry of Education, Government of India, and is headquartered in Mysuru, Karnataka. It functions as a premier research and training institute for Indian languages, focusing on language planning, development, and promotion. CIIL conducts linguistic research, develops teaching materials, and supports the preservation of lesser-known languages. It also coordinates the activities of various classical language centres except Tamil, which is autonomous. CIIL’s role includes sanctioning funds and approving projects for classical language promotion, often causing administrative delays due to centralized control.

Why in news?

CIIL currently oversees four classical language centres (Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia), which are demanding autonomy for smoother functioning and direct financial control.

eMigrate System

eMigrate is India’s government-managed online portal for overseas employment, designed to regulate recruitment and protect Indian migrant workers abroad. It ensures transparency by providing verified employer details, contract attestation, and wage standards before workers depart. For Saudi Arabia, Indian domestic workers must be recruited through eMigrate, which enforces minimum referral wages and age restrictions for female workers. The system also requires a financial bank guarantee to protect female workers. Despite these safeguards, consular support for distressed workers remains limited, and access to justice is often inadequate, especially given the high volume of Indian migrants in Saudi Arabia.

Why in news?

India’s eMigrate system is relevant due to the large number of Indian domestic workers in Saudi Arabia and ongoing concerns about their welfare and recruitment conditions.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme

The Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme was launched by the Government of India in 2015 to promote electric and hybrid vehicle adoption. It offers subsidies and incentives for electric vehicle buyers and manufacturers to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The scheme is implemented in phases, with FAME-II focusing on expanding charging infrastructure and increasing EV penetration in public and shared transport. It supports research and development in EV technology and promotes the use of electric buses and two-wheelers. FAME aims to reduce vehicular emissions and enhance energy security.

Why in news?

FAME scheme funding contributed to the establishment of Karnataka’s widespread public EV charging stations network.

Garos (Tribal Custom of Property Inheritance)

The Garos are a matrilineal tribal community primarily in Meghalaya. Their customary law dictates that property and family name pass through the youngest daughter, known as the nokna, who inherits ancestral property and responsibilities. This contrasts with many Indian inheritance customs that favor male heirs. The youngest daughter holds social role, managing family assets and rituals. The Garo matrilineal system is one of the few surviving examples in India, preserving unique social structures and gender roles. It is legally recognized under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which protects tribal customary laws.

Why in news?

The Garo inheritance custom was cited in debates about the Secular Civil Code, denoting concerns about protecting tribal traditions from uniform legal reforms.

Gender Budget Statement (GBS)

The Gender Budget Statement (GBS) was first introduced in 2005-06 as a tool to track government budget allocations aimed at women’s development. It divides schemes into three parts – Part A (100% allocation for women), Part B (30-99% allocation), and Part C (less than 30% allocation). The GBS helps monitor gender-responsive budgeting but has faced challenges such as over-reporting and under-reporting of allocations. Part C was newly included in 2024-25 to enhance transparency. The GBS currently reports over ₹3 lakh crore for pro-women programs, reaching 1% of GDP for the first time in 2024-25.

Why in news?

The GBS for 2024-25 showed increase in allocations for women, reaching 6.8% of total budget expenditure, driven by changes in reporting and inclusion of new parts in the statement.

Gramdan Movement

The Gramdan Movement is an extension of the Bhoodan Movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave in 1951. While Bhoodan focused on individual land donations to the landless, Gramdan involves the transfer of entire village land into a community trust. This collective ownership prevents the sale of land outside the village and promotes communal management of resources. Landowners retain cultivation rights and benefits but cannot sell land externally. The movement promotes equal rights and responsibilities among villagers and empowers communities towards self-governance and sustainable natural resource management. As of 2024, seven state of Indias have over 3,660 Gramdan villages.

Why in news?

Mendha village’s Gramdan status under this movement is a landmark case in India’s efforts to strengthen tribal self-rule and forest rights.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic used to rank countries by levels of human development, combining life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators. Countries are classified into four categories – low, medium, high, and very high HDI. Cancer incidence and mortality rates vary across these categories, with very high HDI countries showing about three times higher cancer incidence than low HDI countries. The HDI also correlates with cancer survival rates, as low HDI countries tend to have higher mortality-to-incidence ratios due to limited healthcare access and infrastructure.

Why in news?

Cancer cases and deaths are projected to rise disproportionately across HDI levels, with low HDI countries expected to see the highest increases by 2050.

Immunosuppressant Drugs

Immunosuppressant drugs suppress or reduce the strength of the body’s immune system and are primarily used to prevent organ transplant rejection and treat autoimmune diseases. Common types include corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, and mTOR inhibitors. These drugs increase susceptibility to infections and require careful dosage management. Their high cost makes access difficult in many regions. In Kerala, the government’s initiative to provide immunosuppressants at zero profit through Karunya pharmacies aims to improve affordability and adherence to treatment, especially for chronic conditions requiring lifelong medication.

Why in news?

Immunosuppressant drugs are included in the Kerala government’s zero-profit drug scheme launched via Karunya pharmacies to reduce patients’ financial burden.

Indian Cooperative Union (ICU)

The Indian Cooperative Union (ICU) was established in 1929 to promote and regulate the cooperative movement in India. It provided official recognition and support to cooperative societies across the country. The ICU played a key role in post-independence nation-building by facilitating cooperative efforts in housing, agriculture, and industry. Kamladevi Chattopadhyay was its first president, known for her work in social reform and arts. The ICU was instrumental in the construction of New Industrial Town (NIT) Faridabad, approved by Prime Minister Nehru, by organizing refugees into cooperative societies to build the city collectively without government handouts.

Why in news?

The ICU was central to the cooperative construction and development of Faridabad as a refugee resettlement city after 1947.

Indra Sawhney Case

The Indra Sawhney case refers to the landmark 1992 Supreme Court judgment on reservations in India, officially known as the Mandal Commission case. It upheld a 50% ceiling on reservations in government jobs and educational institutions to maintain a balance between affirmative action and meritocracy. The case also introduced the concept of the “creamy layer” to exclude economically advanced individuals from reservation benefits. Indra Sawhney, a petitioner, challenged the reservation policy, leading to this ruling that has shaped India’s reservation system. The decision is a mainstay in Indian constitutional law regarding social justice and affirmative action.

Why in news?

Indra Sawhney, recently designated as a senior advocate by the Supreme Court, is noted for filing the case that led to the 1992 ruling on the 50% reservation ceiling.

Integrated Disease Surveillance Program (IDSP)

The Integrated Disease Surveillance Program (IDSP) operates under the National Health Mission and covers all 36 States and Union Territories in India. It monitors over 40 epidemic-prone diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections. IDSP coordinates the collection and flow of samples to Regional Genome Sequencing Labs (RGSLs) and provides epidemiological data to states and UTs. It plays a critical role in collating Whole Genome Sequencing results and reporting them for timely action. IDSP also supports public health units at points of entry and helps maintain biosecurity and preparedness for disease outbreaks.

Why in news?

IDSP is central to India’s efforts to monitor and control the spread of new COVID-19 variants like KP.1 and KP.2.

Integrated Emergency Response Management System (IERMS)

The Integrated Emergency Response Management System (IERMS) is an initiative in India to enhance public safety through integrated technology. It involves installing CCTV surveillance and emergency communication systems at railway stations and other public places. As of 2024, 489 railway stations have been equipped with CCTV under IERMS. The system coordinates emergency services and law enforcement for faster response times. It integrates with other safety projects like the Emergency Response Support System (ERSS) and Women Helpline (WHL-181). The system is designed to protect vulnerable populations, including women traveling alone.

Why in news?

IERMS has equipped 489 railway stations with CCTV and distributed over 2000 tabs to Railway Protection Force personnel to assist women travelers under the Safe City and Nirbhaya Fund schemes.

Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority (IEPFA)

The Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority (IEPFA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, responsible for promoting investor awareness and protecting investor interests. It manages unclaimed dividends, matured deposits, and shares transferred to the fund. IEPFA also conducts investor education programs and grievance redressal activities. The authority’s governance includes a chairman and members appointed by the government. It works closely with financial regulators to ensure investor rights and compliance with corporate laws. The fund is financed through unclaimed amounts from companies and is used to educate and safeguard investors nationwide.

Why in news?

Manoj Govil, MCA Secretary, has been appointed chairman of the IEPFA, with new members including RBI executive director Neeraj Nigam joining the authority.

Jan Andolan

Jan Andolan refers to a people’s movement aimed at creating widespread awareness and participation in social causes. In the context of organ donation, it was brought into light during the Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav, the 75th anniversary of Indian Independence, to promote organ donation across India. The movement encourages community involvement and aims to dispel myths surrounding organ donation. It uses public campaigns, educational initiatives, and government support to increase donor registrations and facilitate organ transplants. This approach has contributed to rise in organ donation rates in recent years, although the overall donation rate remains below one per million population.

Why in news?

Jan Andolan was emphasized as a key effort during India’s 75th Independence anniversary celebrations to boost organ donation awareness and participation nationwide.

Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS)

Jan Shikshan Sansthan is a government initiative established in 1967 under the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, aimed at imparting vocational training to non-literate, neo-literate, and school dropouts, primarily targeting women and marginalized groups. It operates through a network of over 300 institutes across India, focusing on skill development and livelihood enhancement. JSS provides training in local languages and adapts its curriculum to regional needs. The program emphasizes community participation and empowerment through skill-building in sectors like agriculture, handicrafts, and small enterprises. JSS is a vital part of India’s rural development and skill enhancement framework, contributing to women’s participation in skill training.

Why in news?

Jan Shikshan Sansthan is cited for its role in training women, with 82% of its trainees being women, supporting the broader goal of women empowerment in entrepreneurship.

Kunbi Community

The Kunbi are an indigenous agrarian community primarily found in Goa and Maharashtra. Traditionally, they are cultivators and are known for their unique farming practices adapted to the Konkan coastal region. The Kunbi speak Konkani and Marathi dialects and have rich cultural traditions including folk dances like Fugdi and Dhalo. They were officially recognized as a Scheduled Tribe in Goa in 2003, which increased the ST population figures in the state. The Kunbi community has historically played important role in Goa’s rural economy, maintaining traditional agricultural methods despite modernization pressures.

Why in news?

The Kunbi community was added to Goa’s Scheduled Tribe list in 2003, leading to a rise in the ST population and prompting the 2024 Bill to reserve seats for STs in the Goa Legislative Assembly.

Manual Scavenging

Manual scavenging refers to the practice of manually cleaning, carrying, disposing, or handling human excreta from dry latrines or sewers. It has been officially banned in India under the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013. Despite the ban, deaths and injuries continue due to unsafe working conditions and illegal continuation of the practice. It is predominantly performed by Dalits, reflecting deep-rooted caste-based discrimination. The practice is linked to severe health hazards and social stigma. Efforts to rehabilitate manual scavengers include skill development and alternative employment, but progress remains slow.

Why in news?

The text references ongoing deaths from manual scavenging despite its constitutional ban, underscoring persistent caste discrimination and challenges in social reform.

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

The Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture is a government initiative aimed at promoting holistic growth of the horticulture sector in India. It supports infrastructure development, research, extension, and post-harvest management to increase productivity and quality of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. MIDH funds projects related to nurseries, cold storage, and marketing infrastructure. It also promotes organic farming and value addition to horticultural products. The mission operates through central and state governments and collaborates with various stakeholders to enhance farmers’ income. MIDH is a key source of funding for the Clean Plant Programme, contributing half of its Rs 1,765 crore budget.

Why in news?

MIDH is financing half of the Clean Plant Programme’s budget, which aims to improve the quality of fruit crops through development of clean planting material and infrastructure enhancement.

National Ayush Mission (NAM)

The National Ayush Mission (NAM) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched by the Government of India to promote and develop the AYUSH systems (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy). NAM focuses on improving infrastructure, quality control, human resource development, and research in AYUSH. It supports State/UT governments in establishing AYUSH colleges, dispensaries, and wellness centers. The mission also aims to integrate AYUSH services with the public health system and encourage community participation. NAM was launched in 2014 and operates through a mix of central funding and state contributions, covering all states and union territories.

Why in news?

NAM is mentioned as the scheme through which the Ministry implements AYUSH development and promotion while working on integrating AYUSH packages under the Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY health insurance scheme.

National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP)

The National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP) is India’s government initiative targeting the elimination of tuberculosis by 2025. It coordinates TB control activities, including diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring, across states. The program integrates new WHO-recommended regimens like BPaLM and manages drug procurement and distribution. NTEP also conducts training for healthcare workers at multiple levels—state, district, and community—to ensure effective treatment administration. The program tracks treatment outcomes and adverse effects, aiming to reduce TB incidence and mortality. NTEP collaborates with research bodies like ICMR to validate new treatment protocols.

Why in news?

NTEP is central to implementing the new BPaLM regimen in India, with training sites planned in six locations to cover multiple states for better management of drug-resistant TB.

PM Surya Ghat Muft Bijli Yojna

This ₹75,000 crore government initiative aims to provide 300 units of free solar electricity to one crore Indian households. Launched in 2024, the scheme promotes renewable energy adoption and rural electrification. A key eligibility condition mandates that solar components must be sourced from Indian manufacturers, supporting domestic industry growth. The program aligns with India’s target to increase solar capacity to 200 GW by 2030 from the current 85 GW. The scheme also reinforces the DCR policy by linking subsidies and benefits to the use of indigenous solar technology.

Why in news?

The scheme is brought into light as part of India’s broader push for solar energy expansion and domestic manufacturing through regulatory and subsidy measures.

PM-Gati Shakti National Master Plan

The PM-Gati Shakti National Master Plan is an integrated infrastructure development initiative by the Government of India aimed at enhancing multimodal connectivity and logistics efficiency. Launched in 2021, it coordinates 16 ministries to streamline project approvals and reduce costs. The plan uses a digital platform to monitor progress and improve inter-agency cooperation. It targets reducing logistic costs from 14% to 10% of GDP by 2030. The plan prioritizes connectivity in aspirational and underdeveloped districts, facilitating faster movement of goods and people. It supports sustainable development by promoting environment-friendly transport modes like railways.

Why in news?

The PM-Gati Shakti National Master Plan enabled the approval of eight new railway projects in August 2024 to improve connectivity and logistics across seven state of Indias.

PM-WANI (Public Wi-Fi Access Network Interface)

PM-WANI is a government initiative to expand public Wi-Fi access across India by enabling Public Data Offices (PDOs) to offer internet services without needing individual licenses. Launched in 2020, it aims to democratize internet access by reducing regulatory hurdles and costs. PDOs act as local Wi-Fi providers using existing infrastructure, connecting users through public hotspots. The scheme encourages competition and innovation in broadband services. However, the rollout has been slow due to high backhaul costs and regulatory challenges. PM-WANI intends to complement mobile networks by increasing affordable broadband penetration in semi-urban and rural areas.

Why in news?

PM-WANI hotspot numbers are far below targets set by the National Digital Communications Policy and Bharat 6G Vision due to expensive internet backhaul costs and regulatory issues affecting Public Data Offices.

Population-based Cancer Registry

A population-based cancer registry systematically collects, stores, analyzes, and reports data on cancer incidence and survival within a defined population. It helps identify cancer trends, risk factors, and effectiveness of interventions. Cancer registries follow international coding standards such as ICD-O for uniformity. Data from these registries assist in planning public health strategies and resource allocation. They also support epidemiological research and clinical trials. The registry can be hospital-based or population-based, with the latter covering all cases in a geographic area.

Why in news?

Himachal Pradesh plans to initiate a population-based cancer registry to study cancer types and incidence, aiming to improve prevention and treatment strategies.

Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP)

The Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP) is an Government of India initiative launched in 2008 to provide quality generic medicines at affordable prices. It operates through Jan Aushadhi Kendras, retail outlets selling generic drugs. These medicines are priced 50% to 90% lower than branded alternatives. The scheme ensures quality by sourcing medicines from WHO-GMP certified manufacturers. It has expanded rapidly, with over 13,000 Kendras operational as of 2024, and plans to increase to 25,000 Kendras within three years. The program also uses NABL-accredited labs for quality testing.

Why in news?

The government announced the expansion of Jan Aushadhi Kendras from 10,000 to 25,000, emphasizing affordable medicine access through the PMBJP scheme.

Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY)

PMGKAY is a central government welfare scheme providing free food grains to approximately 81.35 crore beneficiaries. It was launched as an emergency relief during the COVID-19 pandemic and extended to continue for five years from January 1, 2024. Under PMGKAY, eligible individuals initially received 5kg of free grains per person monthly. The scheme’s rice price for procurement beyond free grain limits was recently reduced to ₹2,800 per quintal. PMGKAY plays important role in ensuring food security for the economically vulnerable sections of India.

Why in news?

The government announced the continuation of PMGKAY for five years and revised the rice procurement price to help States procure more grains under the scheme.

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)

PMGSY is a nationwide rural road development program launched in 2000 to provide all-weather road connectivity to unconnected habitations in India. It focuses on improving rural infrastructure and economic growth by upgrading roads with durable materials. By March 2022, over 4,831 km of roads had been approved for Whitetopping under PMGSY. The program uses innovative technologies like Whitetopping to ensure longevity and reduce maintenance costs. PMGSY is managed by the National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency and has increased rural accessibility across India, supporting agricultural and social development.

Why in news?

Whitetopping Technology has been extensively used under PMGSY, influencing the ministry’s decision to adopt it for national highways rehabilitation.

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM)

Launched in 2019, PM-KUSUM aims to solarise agriculture in India through three components – mini-grids on barren lands, replacement of diesel pumps with off-grid solar pumps, and replacement of electric pumps with on-grid solar pumps plus mini-grid installation. The scheme targets reducing farmers’ reliance on fossil fuels and grid electricity, promoting renewable energy use in irrigation. It has a goal to reduce carbon emissions by 5.2 million tonnes. Progress varies across states, with Component B (solar pump replacement) advancing faster than Components A and C. The scheme’s deadline for full implementation is 2026.

Why in news?

A 2024 report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) marks PM-KUSUM’s slow progress, achieving only 30% of targets, and recommends decentralisation and financial adjustments to meet 2026 goals.

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)

The Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana was launched in 2020 to enhance fish production and infrastructure in India. It targets sustainable development in fisheries, aiming to increase fish production by 70 lakh tonnes and generate direct and indirect employment for 55 lakh people. The scheme focuses on modernizing fishing practices, promoting aquaculture, and improving post-harvest infrastructure. It includes financial support to fishers, fish farmers, and fish workers. The Yojana also emphasizes the development of fisheries clusters, cold chain facilities, and marketing infrastructure. States have discretion in accepting and implementing projects under PMMSY, affecting fund disbursement.

Why in news?

The scheme’s fund allocation and acceptance by states like West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh were discussed during the Lok Sabha Budget session in August 2024.

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act

The POCSO Act, enacted in 2012, is a comprehensive Indian law to protect children from sexual abuse, harassment, and exploitation. It defines various offenses, including penetrative and non-penetrative assault, sexual harassment, and pornography involving children. The Act mandates special courts for speedy trials and child-friendly procedures during investigation and trial. It includes provisions for mandatory reporting of offenses and confidentiality to protect victims. The law applies to all children under 18 years of age. Amendments have expanded definitions and penalties, aiming to strengthen child protection across India.

Why in news?

The accused in the Badlapur school case has been charged under the POCSO Act, denoting its role in prosecuting child sexual abuse cases and ensuring swift justice.

Saakshar Bharat Programme

The Saakshar Bharat programme was an adult literacy mission implemented from 2009-10 to 2017-18, targeting non-literate adults in India. It certified approximately 7.64 crore individuals as literate during its tenure. The scheme focused on women’s literacy and empowerment, with a special emphasis on marginalized communities. Despite its achievements, an estimated 18.12 crore adults remained non-literate post-programme. Saakshar Bharat laid the groundwork for subsequent initiatives like NILP, emphasizing foundational literacy and numeracy skills alongside life skills such as financial literacy.

Why in news?

Referenced in the Ministry of Education’s letter to contextualize ongoing challenges and efforts in adult literacy in India.

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)

The FRA, 2006 recognizes forest rights of Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) in India. It grants rights to use, manage, and conserve forest resources, including possession of up to 4 hectares for housing and farming, community forest resource rights, and protection against eviction without due process. The Act mandates consent of forest dwellers before relocation and requires authorities to provide resettlement and rehabilitation packages. FRA aims to balance conservation with livelihoods, ensuring legal recognition of traditional forest inhabitants’ rights. It applies to areas like the Manjolai estate within tiger reserves.

Why in news?

The FRA is central to the Manjolai estate conflict, as workers claim forest rights and challenge eviction orders, demanding recognition and compensation under the Act.

Small and Marginal Farmers in India

Small and marginal farmers in India are defined as those owning less than two hectares of land. They constitute 86.2% of all farmers but hold only 47.3% of the total crop area. Their average landholding is about 0.6 hectares. Between 2010-11 and 2015-16, their numbers increased by 9 million. These small farms face challenges in adopting new technology and producing surplus income, contributing to agricultural distress. Despite their small size, they account for portion of agricultural output and require focused policy support for sustainability.

Why in news?

The rise in small and marginal farmers and their landholding statistics were brought into light in the recently released agriculture census data.

Social Bonds

Social bonds are fixed-income instruments specifically designed to finance projects with positive social outcomes, such as affordable housing, education, and healthcare. The International Capital Market Association (ICMA) established social bond principles in 2017 to guide issuers on transparency and reporting. Unlike green bonds, which focus on environmental projects, social bonds target social challenges and inclusive growth. These bonds often attract investors seeking to support social development goals aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Issuers must provide clear use-of-proceeds frameworks and impact reporting to maintain credibility and investor confidence.

Why in news?

India’s market regulator plans to introduce social bonds into its sustainable finance framework to expand ESG debt offerings and encourage financing for social projects.

Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011

The Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011 was a comprehensive survey conducted separately from the traditional Census to collect detailed data on caste, economic status, and social indicators. It enumerated over 46 lakh castes, sub-castes, and names, a figure far exceeding the 4,147 castes recorded in the 1931 Census. The data was submitted to the Supreme Court in 2021 with an affidavit stating it contained mistakes and inaccuracies, making it unreliable for policy decisions on reservations. The SECC was the first attempt at caste enumeration post-independence but its findings were never publicly released.

Why in news?

The SECC data’s accuracy and use are under scrutiny amid current discussions to include caste enumeration in the next Census exercise.

Sub-classification of Scheduled Castes (SC) Reservation

Sub-classification of Scheduled Castes involves dividing the SC category into smaller groups to allocate reservation benefits more equitably among them. This is intended to address disparities within the SCs, where some sub-groups have historically benefited more from reservations than others. The concept aims to prevent dominant sub-castes from monopolizing resources and opportunities. The Supreme Court of India recently upheld the legality of this sub-classification in the State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh case in 2024. Implementation challenges include defining criteria for marginalization and ensuring data-driven policies to avoid political misuse.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court’s 2024 judgment affirmed sub-classification among SCs, sparking debate on reservation reforms and social justice mechanisms within marginalized groups.

Unemployment Allowance under MGNREGA

The unemployment allowance under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is a legal entitlement for workers not provided employment within 15 days of demand. It is set at one-fourth of the wage rate for the first 30 days of the financial year and half the wage rate thereafter. This allowance aims to hold State governments accountable for providing guaranteed work. Despite its statutory backing since 2005, the allowance is severely underutilized, with only a few States disbursing it in recent years, often due to poor recording of work demand and administrative hurdles at the block level.

Why in news?

The Economic Survey 2024 revealed that only ₹90,000 was released as unemployment allowance in 2023-24, a sharp decline from ₹7.8 lakh the previous year, indicating underreporting and implementation issues.

Unified Pension Scheme (UPS)

The Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) is a government pension plan approved in 2024, effective from April 1, 2025, combining features of the Old Pension Scheme (OPS) and National Pension Scheme (NPS). It guarantees retirees a pension of 50% of their average basic pay over the last 12 months before retirement, with a minimum qualifying service of 10 years. UPS includes assured minimum pension of Rs 10,000 per month, family pension at 60% of last drawn pension, inflation indexation via Dearness Relief, and lumpsum payments at superannuation. It remains a funded, contributory scheme with government and employee contributions.

Why in news?

The Union Cabinet approved UPS as a political and fiscal response to opposition and employee demands, ahead of several Assembly elections in India, aiming to replace NPS with assured pension benefits.

Velip Community

The Velip are an indigenous tribal group in Goa, mainly residing in the coastal and forested areas of the state. They are traditionally fishermen and forest gatherers, relying on natural resources for sustenance. The Velip language is a dialect of Konkani, and they maintain distinct customs and rituals linked to their environment. The community was officially classified as a Scheduled Tribe in Goa in 2003. Despite their small population, Velips have a strong identity and participate actively in regional cultural festivals. Their inclusion in the ST list helped increase the recognized tribal population in Goa.

Why in news?

The Velip community’s addition to the Scheduled Tribe list in 2003 contributed to the increased ST population count in Goa, influencing the 2024 legislative reservation Bill.

Defence

101 Squadron, Indian Air Force

The 101 Squadron of the Indian Air Force, also known as the “Falcons,” operates from the Hashimara Air Base in West Bengal. It is primarily equipped with Rafale fighter jets, which are multi-role aircraft capable of air superiority, interdiction, and reconnaissance missions. Established during World War II, the squadron has a rich history of combat and operational excellence. The squadron’s strategic location near the India-Bangladesh border allows rapid response to regional threats. It played a key role during the 2024 Bangladesh crisis by providing air cover for a critical evacuation mission.

Why in news?

The 101 Squadron scrambled Rafale jets to escort the aircraft carrying Sheikh Hasina to India amid the political crisis in Bangladesh.

17 Mountain Strike Corps

The 17 Mountain Strike Corps is a specialized Indian Army formation raised in 2013, headquartered in Gangtok, Sikkim. It is designed for mountain warfare, particularly in the difficult terrains of the North East and along the Sino-Indian border. It consists of infantry, artillery, and specialized mountain units equipped for high-altitude combat. The corps was created to strengthen India’s defense posture against Chinese military buildup in the region. It is the only strike corps focused on mountainous terrain and incorporates modern surveillance and communication systems suited for harsh weather conditions and rugged landscapes.

Why in news?

The 17 Mountain Strike Corps is mentioned as part of India’s military reorientation to counter Chinese deployments in the North East and Sikkim regions.

Assam Rifles

The Assam Rifles is India’s oldest paramilitary force, established in 1835. It operates primarily in the Northeast and Jammu & Kashmir, focusing on counter-insurgency and border security. It is unique as it functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs but is officered by the Indian Army. The force played a key role in Operation Dudhi in May 1991, counter-insurgency success in Jammu and Kashmir. Assam Rifles troops are known for their expertise in jungle warfare and maintaining law and order in difficult terrains. They have a long history of gallantry awards and community engagement in tribal areas.

Why in news?

Assam Rifles troops are being inducted into the Jammu region to boost counter-terrorism operations amid rising militancy and security challenges.

Astra Mark 2 Missile

The Astra Mark 2 is an advanced air-to-air missile under development by DRDO, intended to succeed the Astra Mark 1. It is designed with an extended range of approximately 130 kilometers, nearly double that of the Mark 1. The missile features improved propulsion, guidance, and electronic counter-countermeasures to enhance performance in contested environments. It is expected to be compatible with multiple Indian fighter aircraft, including the Su-30 and LCA Tejas. The Mark 2 aims to provide boost to India’s aerial combat capabilities and is part of a phased missile modernization plan.

Why in news?

The Indian Air Force and DRDO are preparing to test the Astra Mark 2 missile, targeting an operational range of 130 kilometers.

Astra Mk1 Missile

The Astra Mk1 is India’s indigenous beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile operational on the Su-30MKI fighter jet. It has a speed of Mach 4.5 and a range of around 100 km. The Astra Mk1 is part of a missile family with Mk2 and Mk3 variants currently in trials. Unlike US and Chinese missiles focused on extreme long-range capabilities, Astra’s design suits India’s specific operational requirements. The Astra Mk1 is the first indigenously produced missile integrated into India’s frontline fighter jets, enhancing the country’s self-reliance in defense technology.

Why in news?

India’s Astra Mk1 missile is brought into light in comparison to US and Chinese long-range missiles, reflecting India’s growing but currently limited air-to-air missile capabilities.

Bailey Bridge

The Bailey bridge is a modular, pre-fabricated steel bridge designed for rapid assembly without heavy equipment. Invented by English engineer Donald Coleman Bailey during World War II, it was first sketched in 1941 and widely used by Allied forces in Italy and northwest Europe between 1943-45. The bridge consists of light steel panels linked by large screw-like pins forming guardrails, onto which beams lock to create the deck. Its modular design allows quick extension and mobility. It can carry loads up to 24 tonnes and requires only small trucks for transportation, making it ideal for war and disaster relief scenarios.

Why in news?

A 190-foot Bailey bridge was assembled by the Indian Army’s Madras Engineer Group in Kerala’s Wayanad district after deadly landslides to facilitate rescue operations and movement of heavy machinery.

BrahMos Missile System

The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile developed jointly by India and Russia, capable of speeds up to Mach 3. It can be launched from land, sea, and air platforms. The missile has a range of approximately 400 kilometers and is known for its precision strike capability against surface targets. BrahMos is one of the fastest cruise missiles in the world and is deployed by the Indian Armed Forces to enhance strategic deterrence. The missile’s mobility requires robust road infrastructure for transport and deployment, influencing military logistics and infrastructure projects in sensitive regions.

Why in news?

The Union Ministry of Defence demanded the widening of the Char Dham highway to mobilize heavy military hardware, including BrahMos missiles, leading to environmental concerns due to increased road construction in the Himalayas.

Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA)

COMCASA is an India-specific version of the US Communication and Information Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), signed in 2018. It enables secure military communication between India and the US, facilitating access to advanced defence systems. COMCASA allows India to fully utilise US-origin platforms by providing encrypted communication channels and interoperability. The agreement is critical for joint operations and sharing sensitive information securely. It is part of a series of foundational defence agreements enhancing India-US military cooperation, alongside LEMOA, BECA, and GSOMIA.

Why in news?

COMCASA remains a key part of India-US defence cooperation, underpinning secure communication and operational integration discussed during 2024 defence talks.

Gazala Field Regiment

The Gazala Field Regiment is an artillery unit of the Indian Army, named after the Battle of Gazala fought in North Africa during World War II. It is equipped with field artillery guns and plays a critical role in providing fire support to infantry and armored units. The regiment has participated in various military operations, including wars fought by India. Its personnel undergo rigorous training in artillery tactics, gunnery, and battlefield coordination. The regiment is known for its adaptability in diverse terrains, from deserts to mountainous regions. It carries forward a tradition of valor and precision in artillery warfare.

Why in news?

General Padmanabhan commanded the Gazala Field Regiment early in his career, a notable assignment in his 43-year military service.

Golden Katar Division

The Golden Katar Division is an infantry division of the Indian Army known for its rapid response capabilities in disaster relief and counter-insurgency operations. It derives its name from the Katar, a traditional Indian dagger symbolizing valor. The division has been deployed multiple times in flood relief, providing food, medical aid, and rehabilitation support. It operates primarily in western India, including Gujarat and Rajasthan. The division’s logistics and coordination skills are critical during natural disasters, often working alongside civil authorities to restore normalcy.

Why in news?

The Golden Katar Division is actively engaged in providing flood relief in Vadodara, Jamnagar, and Rajkot following severe rains and flooding in Gujarat.

Hybrid Navigation Scheme

A hybrid navigation scheme combines multiple navigation methods such as inertial navigation systems (INS), satellite-based GPS, and terrain contour matching to improve accuracy and reliability. This system compensates for limitations of individual navigation methods by cross-verifying positional data. In missile technology, hybrid navigation enhances target precision and resilience against electronic countermeasures. The glide bomb Gaurav uses this scheme to steer accurately over long distances after launch. Such systems are critical in modern guided munitions to ensure effectiveness even in GPS-denied environments or under jamming attempts. Hybrid navigation is a key advancement in autonomous weapon guidance technology.

Why in news?

The LRGB Gaurav glide bomb tested by DRDO uses a highly accurate hybrid navigation scheme to achieve precise targeting during its maiden flight in August 2024.

India-US Defence Acceleration Ecosystem (INDUS-X)

INDUS-X is a defence innovation bridge launched in June 2023 by the US Department of Defense and India’s Ministry of Defence. It builds on the Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) initiative to accelerate co-development and co-production of defence technologies. INDUS-X aims to encourage collaboration across innovation ecosystems, integrating Indian defence industry into global supply chains. It supports development in areas like aerospace, munitions, and unmanned platforms. The initiative promotes strategic technology partnerships and defence industrial cooperation, enabling stronger bilateral ties in emerging defence technologies.

Why in news?

INDUS-X was brought into light as part of India-US efforts to deepen defence industrial cooperation and innovation during recent bilateral talks in 2024.

INDUS-X (India-U.S. Defence Acceleration Ecosystem)

INDUS-X is a bilateral initiative launched in June 2023 to strengthen defense innovation and industrial cooperation between India and the United States. It connects startups, investors, academia, and government agencies from both countries to promote co-development and investment in advanced defense technologies. The initiative is led by India’s Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) and the U.S. Defence Innovation Unit (DIU), with support from the Office of the Secretary of Defence (OSD). INDUS-X focuses on sectors like AI, autonomous systems, maritime tech, and space, aiming to build a robust cross-border defense innovation ecosystem.

Why in news?

The 3rd INDUS-X Summit will be held at Stanford University, bringing together policymakers and innovators to enhance India-U.S. defense technology partnerships.

INS Arighaat

INS Arighaat is India’s second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), weighing approximately 6,000 tonnes. It is part of the Arihant-class and is powered by an 83 MW pressurized light-water nuclear reactor. The submarine is equipped with indigenously developed K-15 missiles having a range of over 700 km. Arighaat enhances India’s nuclear triad by providing a credible second-strike capability from the sea. The vessel incorporates advanced design and manufacturing technologies, with systems conceptualized, designed, and integrated by Indian scientists, industry, and naval personnel. It can remain submerged longer than diesel-electric submarines due to its nuclear propulsion.

Why in news?

INS Arighaat was commissioned into the Indian Navy in August 2024, strengthening India’s nuclear deterrence and maritime strike capabilities.

INS Mumbai

INS Mumbai is the third ship of the Delhi-class destroyers, commissioned on January 22, 2001. It is an indigenously built guided-missile destroyer of the Indian Navy with a displacement of around 6,700 tons. The ship is equipped with advanced radar systems, surface-to-air missiles, anti-ship missiles, and torpedoes. It has a crew complement of approximately 350 personnel. INS Mumbai has participated in various naval exercises and anti-piracy operations. The ship can operate a helicopter and has a range of over 6,000 nautical miles at cruising speed. It represents milestone in India’s naval modernization efforts.

Why in news?

INS Mumbai is arriving at Colombo port for its maiden visit to Sri Lanka, marking the eighth Indian naval port call in Sri Lanka this year and strengthening bilateral naval ties.

Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) of India

The Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) was created in 2001 to encourage jointness among the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force. It acts as the secretariat to the Chiefs of Staff Committee and coordinates joint operations, planning, and intelligence sharing. The IDS is headed by the Chief of Integrated Defence Staff, a three-star officer who reports directly to the Chief of Defence Staff. The IDS played a critical role during the Bangladesh crisis in 2024 by coordinating intelligence and operational responses between various security agencies and the armed forces.

Why in news?

Lt Gen Johnson Philip Mathew, Chief of IDS, was involved in the top-level security meeting managing the evacuation and monitoring of the Bangladesh crisis.

JIMEX (Japan-India Maritime Exercise)

JIMEX is an annual bilateral naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) initiated in 2012. It focuses on enhancing interoperability, maritime security, and coordination in the Indo-Pacific region. JIMEX includes complex maneuvers like anti-submarine warfare, air defense, and surface warfare drills. The exercise strengthens strategic ties and complements multilateral exercises such as MALABAR and MILAN. It reflects growing defence cooperation amid regional security challenges. JIMEX is notable for integrating advanced naval platforms and communication systems like the NORA-50 to improve joint operational capabilities.

Why in news?

JIMEX is referenced as a key platform where India and Japan conduct naval cooperation, relevant to the discussion on expanding defence ties and technology sharing during the 2+2 Dialogue.

K-15 Nuclear Ballistic Missile

The K-15, also known as BrahMos-2 in some contexts, is a nuclear-capable submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) developed by India. It has a range of approximately 750 kilometers and can be launched from Arihant-class SSBNs. The missile is designed for underwater launch and can carry nuclear warheads. Its relatively short range is intended for regional deterrence, allowing submarines to patrol closer to Indian waters while threatening strategic targets. The K-15 complements longer-range missiles planned for future submarines, contributing to India’s layered nuclear deterrence strategy.

Why in news?

INS Arighaat is equipped with K-15 missiles, enhancing India’s nuclear strike capabilities from underwater platforms.

K9 Vajra Self-Propelled Artillery Guns

The K9 Vajra is an Indian variant of the South Korean K9 Thunder self-propelled 155mm howitzer artillery gun. Manufactured by Larsen & Toubro in India under a technology transfer agreement, it has enhanced mobility, rapid-fire capability, and advanced fire control systems. It can operate in diverse terrains, including high-altitude regions like Eastern Ladakh. The system has a range of approximately 40 km with standard ammunition and features automated loading and navigation systems. It improves the Indian Army’s artillery firepower, especially in mountainous border areas, providing both offensive and defensive support.

Why in news?

K9 Vajra artillery guns are deployed near the LAC in Eastern Ladakh as part of India’s upgraded military hardware to counter Chinese forces.

Line of Actual Control (LAC)

The LAC is the demarcation line that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory in the western sector of their disputed border, mainly in Ladakh. It is not a legally recognized international boundary but a practical control line resulting from the 1962 Sino-Indian War. The LAC spans approximately 3,488 kilometers and includes three sectors – western (Ladakh), middle (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand), and eastern (Arunachal Pradesh). The line is often disputed due to differing perceptions by India and China, leading to frequent stand-offs and military face-offs. It remains a sensitive and volatile region.

Why in news?

The LAC is central to the ongoing military stand-off in eastern Ladakh between India and China, which the recent WMCC talks and diplomatic engagements aim to resolve.

Long Wheeler’s Island

Long Wheeler’s Island is a small island located off the coast of Odisha, primarily used as a missile testing and launch range by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). It is part of the Integrated Test Range (ITR), which supports testing of various missile systems. The island’s remote location and proximity to the Bay of Bengal make it ideal for secure and controlled weapons testing. It features telemetry stations and electro-optical tracking systems to monitor and record flight data during missile trials. The island has been instrumental in the development and validation of multiple indigenous defense technologies.

Why in news?

Long Wheeler’s Island was the site for the maiden flight test of the indigenous long-range glide bomb (LRGB) Gaurav by DRDO on August 13, 2024.

MiG-29 Fighter Aircraft

The MiG-29 is a Soviet-designed fourth-generation jet fighter introduced in 1983 by Mikoyan-Gurevich. It is known for its agility and powerful thrust-to-weight ratio, designed primarily for air superiority missions. The MiG-29 features a helmet-mounted sight system and infrared search and track (IRST) sensors. It has a top speed of Mach 2.25 and a combat radius of about 700 km. Over 1,600 units have been produced worldwide, serving in more than 30 countries. The aircraft has undergone multiple upgrades to improve avionics and weapons systems, but many operators still use older models.

Why in news?

Serbia’s air force relies heavily on aging Soviet-made MiG-29s, prompting the decision to purchase modern Rafale jets to upgrade its fleet.

Novorossiysk (Aircraft Carrier)

The Novorossiysk was the fourth and final Kiev-class aircraft carrier, commissioned in 1982 and named after a Russian port city. It served in the Soviet and later Russian Navy before being retired in 1993. Unlike the Minsk, the Novorossiysk was scrapped in South Korea after its sale. Environmental concerns from local groups influenced the disposal of the Minsk, leading to its sale to China instead. The Novorossiysk was the last Kiev-class carrier to be decommissioned and dismantled, marking the end of the Soviet Union’s Kiev-class carrier program.

Why in news?

The Novorossiysk was sold alongside the Minsk after retirement but was dismantled in South Korea, contrasting with the Minsk’s conversion into a museum ship in China.

Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests

The Pokhran-II refers to a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India in May 1998 at the Pokhran test range in Rajasthan. These tests included both fission and thermonuclear devices, marking India’s second publicly acknowledged nuclear weapons tests after 1974’s Smiling Buddha. Pokhran-II demonstrated India’s advanced nuclear capability, leading to international sanctions and heightened regional tensions, especially with Pakistan. The tests were a very important moment in India’s defense policy and nuclear deterrence strategy. They also spurred diplomatic efforts for nuclear non-proliferation and India’s eventual engagement with global nuclear regimes.

Why in news?

Pokhran-II was mentioned in Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s 1998 Independence Day speech, reaffirming India’s policy of peace with neighbors following the nuclear tests and announcing related government initiatives.

Research Centre Imarat (RCI)

Research Centre Imarat (RCI), located in Hyderabad, is a premier laboratory under DRDO specializing in the development of missile technologies and advanced avionics. Established in 1988, RCI focuses on navigation, guidance, and control systems for strategic missile programs. It played a key role in developing the indigenous hybrid navigation system used in the LRGB Gaurav glide bomb. RCI is also involved in the development of satellite navigation technologies and has contributed to the success of India’s Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) program. The center operates closely with production partners to transition technologies from lab to field deployment.

Why in news?

RCI developed the hybrid navigation scheme and led the design of the long-range glide bomb Gaurav, successfully tested by DRDO in August 2024.

Shishumar-class Submarines

The Shishumar-class submarines are diesel-electric attack submarines developed by the German shipyard Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft (HDW) and built in India. Commissioned from the 1980s onward, these submarines have a lifespan of around 30 years, extendable through retrofitting and life certification. They form part of the Indian Navy’s conventional submarine fleet and contribute to anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare capabilities. The class features advanced sonar and torpedo systems and has been periodically upgraded to maintain operational effectiveness.

Why in news?

Shishumar-class subs are part of the Indian Navy’s conventional submarine strength, which reached 18 with the commissioning of INS Arighaat.

Village Defence Committees (VDCs)

Village Defence Committees (VDCs) are local volunteer groups in Jammu and Kashmir formed to assist security forces in counter-insurgency operations. They are equipped with traditional weapons like the .303 rifles and semi-automatic Self Loading Rifles (SLRs). VDC members are often locals familiar with the terrain and community, aiding in intelligence gathering and patrols. The committees were originally formed during the militancy surge in the 1990s to boost village-level security. VDCs receive periodic training and are officially recognized by the government, playing important role in rural defense and early warning against terrorist infiltration in border areas.

Why in news?

The government has decided to restart regular training for VDCs with traditional and semi-automatic weapons as part of a broader security plan to counter rising terrorist activities in Jammu.

Awards, Honours, Personalities, Books, Sports etc.

Photo Finish Technology

Photo finish technology uses high-speed cameras aligned with the finish line to capture extremely precise images of athletes crossing the line. These cameras can record thousands of frames per second, allowing officials to determine winners in races decided by thousandths of a second. The images are analyzed frame-by-frame to identify the exact moment each athlete’s torso crosses the finish line, which is the official point for timing. This technology was first introduced in the 1930s and has since evolved to include digital sensors and advanced software, ensuring accuracy in competitive sports where margins are incredibly slim.

Why in news?

Photo finish technology was crucial in determining the winner of the closest ever men’s 100m Olympic final at Paris 2024, where the gold was decided by just five thousandths of a second.

Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar

The Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar is a national award system in India recognizing scientific excellence. It was restructured in 2024 to include four categories – Vigyan Ratna, Vigyan Shri, Vigyan Yuva, and Vigyan Team awards. The maximum number of awards is 56 annually. Vigyan Ratna honors lifetime achievements, Vigyan Shri recognizes distinguished contributions, Vigyan Yuva targets young scientists under 45, and Vigyan Team awards are for groups of three or more collaborators. The awards aim to promote scientific innovation and excellence across diverse fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, and space science.

Why in news?

The government announced 33 Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar awards on August 7, 2024, to be presented on National Space Day, August 23, commemorating Chandrayaan-3’s moon landing.