Cuba

The Republic of Cuba (República de Cuba) is the largest island nation in the Caribbean, situated between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 150 kilometres south of Key West, Florida. Known for its revolutionary history, socialist political system, and enduring geopolitical influence, Cuba occupies a distinctive position in both regional and global affairs.

Historical Background

Cuba’s history is defined by colonial conquest, slavery, and revolution. Prior to European arrival, the island was inhabited by Taino and Ciboney peoples, whose populations declined rapidly following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 and subsequent Spanish colonisation. Over the ensuing centuries, the Spanish developed Cuba into a strategic colonial outpost, importing enslaved Africans to labour on sugar and coffee plantations. The capital, Havana, grew into one of the principal ports of the Spanish Empire, serving as a hub for transatlantic trade and naval operations.
Efforts to secure independence emerged in the nineteenth century, notably during the Ten Years’ War (1868–1878) and the War of Independence (1895–1898), but were repeatedly suppressed. The Spanish–American War (1898) marked a turning point, with U.S. intervention assisting Cuban rebels in overthrowing Spanish control. The Treaty of Paris (1898) formally ended Spanish rule, and after a brief period of U.S. military occupation, Cuba became an independent republic in 1902.
The early republican era was characterised by political instability, corruption, and economic dependency on the United States. Successive governments struggled to balance national sovereignty with foreign influence. A decisive transformation occurred in 1959, when Fidel Castro’s revolutionary movement overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, establishing a one-party socialist state aligned with the Soviet Union.
Under Castro’s leadership, Cuba became a symbol of revolutionary defiance, nationalising industries, instituting agrarian reform, and expanding education and healthcare. The U.S. imposed a trade embargo in 1961, which remains largely in effect. During the Cold War, Cuba supported leftist movements across Latin America and Africa, most famously during the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), which brought the world to the brink of nuclear confrontation.
Following Fidel Castro’s retirement in 2008, Raúl Castro initiated modest economic reforms, allowing limited private enterprise and foreign investment. In 2018, Miguel Díaz-Canel Bermúdez became president and, in 2021, succeeded Raúl as First Secretary of the Communist Party, marking the formal end of the Castro era. Despite the restoration of diplomatic relations with the United States in 2015, the embargo continues to shape Cuba’s economy and external relations.

Geography and Natural Features

Cuba occupies 110,860 square kilometres, encompassing the main island, the Isle of Youth, and over 1,600 smaller cays and islets. The island’s 3,735-kilometre coastline features extensive beaches, mangroves, and coral reefs. The landscape consists largely of rolling plains interspersed with mountains, particularly in the Sierra Maestra of the southeast, where Pico Turquino (1,974 metres) marks the nation’s highest point.
The climate is tropical, moderated by trade winds, with distinct dry (November–April) and rainy (May–October) seasons. Natural hazards include hurricanes, typically between August and November, and occasional droughts.
Natural resources: Nickel, cobalt, iron ore, copper, petroleum, and timber, alongside fertile soils supporting major crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, rice, cassava, and plantains. Roughly 31.2% of the land is forested and 61.7% used for agriculture.

People and Society

As of 2024, Cuba’s population is estimated at 10.97 million, with a median age of 42.6 years, reflecting an ageing demographic. The population growth rate is negative (-0.17%), driven by low fertility (1.71 children per woman) and sustained emigration.
Cuba is highly urbanised, with 77.5% of residents living in cities. Havana, the capital and largest city, has a population exceeding 2.1 million.
Ethnic composition:

• White: 64.1%
• Mulatto or mixed: 26.6%
• Black: 9.3%

Language and religion:

• Official language: Spanish
• Dominant faiths: Roman Catholicism and Afro-Cuban religions such as Santería, which blend African spiritualism with Catholic traditions.

Cuba’s literacy rate of 97.7% ranks among the highest in Latin America. Education is free and compulsory, with 8.4% of GDP allocated to education. Healthcare is similarly prioritised, accounting for 13.8% of GDP, yielding a life expectancy of 80.1 years and an infant mortality rate of 4 per 1,000 births.
The country’s physician density (9.54 per 1,000 inhabitants) is among the highest globally, enabling Cuba to export medical services internationally. Nonetheless, the population faces challenges from ageing and youth migration, straining the workforce and social welfare system.

Government and Politics

Cuba operates as a one-party socialist republic under the 2019 Constitution, which reaffirms the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) as the supreme political entity. The President serves as both head of state and government, while the Prime Minister manages executive administration.

• President: Miguel Díaz-Canel Bermúdez (re-elected 2023)
• Prime Minister: Manuel Marrero Cruz (since 2019)
• Legislature: National Assembly of People’s Power (470 members), elected every five years.

Women hold 55.7% of parliamentary seats — one of the world’s highest gender representations — though all candidates are pre-approved by mass organisations affiliated with the PCC. The judiciary, based on civil law, is headed by the People’s Supreme Court.
Political pluralism is prohibited; the PCC remains the only legal party. Governance emphasises socialist principles, state ownership, and centralised planning, although incremental reforms have allowed limited entrepreneurship and cooperatives.
Cuba’s foreign policy is characterised by non-alignment, anti-imperialism, and active participation in international organisations such as the United Nations (UN), World Health Organization (WHO), World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA).

Economy

Cuba’s economy remains largely state-controlled, though gradual liberalisation has introduced mixed ownership and small-scale private enterprise.
Economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $81.2 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $23,700
• Economic growth: -1.9% (2023)
• Unemployment: 1.6%
• Inflation: High and persistent since 2021 (peaked at 151.9%)

Sectoral distribution:

• Services: 70%
• Industry: 27.5%
• Agriculture: 1.3%

Cuba’s economy depends heavily on tourism, medical services, nickel exports, and pharmaceuticals. Traditional exports — tobacco, sugar, and rum — retain symbolic and economic importance. Imports include food, machinery, and fuel, reflecting the country’s limited domestic production capacity.
Major trading partners include China, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, and Hong Kong. Barter-based arrangements, notably with Venezuela under the “oil-for-doctors” agreement, remain a key element of Cuba’s external trade.
Persistent foreign exchange shortages, low productivity, and the continuing U.S. embargo constrain economic performance, contributing to periodic shortages of food, fuel, and medicine.

Infrastructure and Energy

Cuba maintains one of the Caribbean’s most developed infrastructures. The nation operates 120 airports, 8,367 kilometres of railways, and 34 ports, with major facilities at Havana, Cienfuegos, and Santiago de Cuba.
Electricity access: 100% of the populationEnergy composition: 95.2% fossil fuels, <5% renewables (solar, wind, biomass)
Frequent power shortages and fuel deficits underscore the need for energy diversification. Government initiatives target renewable energy expansion to 24% by 2030.

Military and Security

The Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) remain central to Cuban political and economic life. Comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Defence Forces, the FAR has an estimated 50,000 active personnel.

• Defence expenditure: 3–4% of GDP
• Conscription: Mandatory for men aged 17–28 (service up to two years)

The FAR also oversees significant economic enterprises in tourism, construction, and manufacturing. Security forces prioritise internal stability, border defence, and intelligence operations, with the United States identified as the principal external threat.

Environment and Heritage

Cuba’s environment encompasses mountains, tropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs, contributing to exceptional biodiversity. Environmental issues include deforestation, coastal erosion, and pollution, but the country maintains extensive conservation zones.
Cuba is a signatory to major environmental treaties, including the Paris Climate Accord and the Convention on Biological Diversity.
The nation has nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among them Old Havana, Trinidad and the Valley de los Ingenios, Viñales Valley, and Alejandro de Humboldt National Park, reflecting both its colonial heritage and ecological richness.