Communist Movement in India

The Communist Movement in India represents a major political and ideological force that emerged in the early twentieth century, shaping the country’s socio-political landscape through its struggles for workers’ rights, agrarian reform, and anti-imperialist resistance. Rooted in Marxist-Leninist ideology, the movement developed alongside global communist currents while adapting to Indian socio-economic conditions. Over time, it evolved into a complex network of parties and organisations with varying ideological orientations and political strategies.

Origins and Early Development

The origins of Indian communism can be traced to the early decades of the twentieth century, influenced by the Russian Revolution of 1917, which inspired anti-colonial activists and intellectuals worldwide. Indian revolutionaries such as M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji, and S.A. Dange played pivotal roles in introducing Marxist thought to the Indian context.
In 1920, M.N. Roy attended the Second Congress of the Communist International (Comintern) in Moscow and was instrumental in forming the Communist Party of India (CPI) in Tashkent the same year. Initially operating from exile, the party soon began building underground networks within British India. The first official CPI conference in India took place in Kanpur in 1925, marking the beginning of organised communist activity within the country.

Anti-Colonial Activities and British Suppression

During the 1920s and 1930s, communists became increasingly active in labour movements, trade unions, and peasant struggles. They played a significant role in forming the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), which mobilised industrial workers across sectors such as jute, textile, and railways.
The British colonial government, alarmed by the growth of communist influence, launched repressive measures. The Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–1933) was a key moment in which several communist leaders were arrested and tried for allegedly plotting to overthrow British rule. Despite imprisonment and bans, the CPI continued to operate through legal and underground fronts, strengthening ties with nationalist and workers’ organisations.
During the Second World War, the party initially opposed British involvement but shifted its stance after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, supporting the Allied war effort as part of the global anti-fascist struggle. This period saw significant expansion of CPI influence among workers and peasants.

Role in the National Movement and Post-Independence Politics

As independence approached, the communists were divided over strategy. While the Congress Party pursued constitutional means, the CPI promoted revolutionary transformation and class struggle. However, the CPI also cooperated with the Indian National Congress at times, particularly through anti-fascist fronts and workers’ alliances.
After independence in 1947, the CPI emerged as a major opposition force. It gained substantial support among industrial workers, peasants, and students. In Telangana (1946–1951), the CPI led one of the most significant armed peasant uprisings against feudal landlords and the Nizam’s rule, demanding land redistribution and social justice. Though suppressed by the Indian Army after Hyderabad’s integration into India, the uprising became a landmark in Indian revolutionary history.

Split and Ideological Diversification

The 1960s marked a decisive phase of internal divisions within the communist movement. Ideological differences regarding the interpretation of Marxism-Leninism, relations with the Soviet Union and China, and the approach to parliamentary democracy led to a major split in 1964, resulting in the formation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), or CPI(M).

• CPI maintained a pro-Soviet orientation, supporting parliamentary participation and socialist reform through democratic processes.
• CPI(M), while also participating in elections, adopted a more critical stance toward the Indian National Congress and imperialist powers, favouring a revolutionary transformation aligned more closely with Chinese and independent Marxist thought.

This division institutionalised ideological pluralism within Indian communism, creating two dominant streams that would shape left politics for decades.

Rise of the Naxalite Movement

In 1967, a radical peasant uprising erupted in Naxalbari, a small village in West Bengal, led by revolutionary communists who rejected parliamentary democracy as a path to socialism. Influenced by Maoist principles, they advocated armed struggle to overthrow feudal and capitalist structures.
This movement, spearheaded by leaders such as Charu Mazumdar and Kanu Sanyal, inspired a nationwide wave of insurgency known as the Naxalite Movement. Over time, various Marxist-Leninist groups formed under banners such as the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) (CPI-ML) and its numerous offshoots.
Though suppressed in the 1970s, the Naxalite insurgency persisted in different forms and continues to influence politics in several states, especially in central and eastern India, where socio-economic disparities remain acute.

Participation in Democratic Politics

Despite internal ideological differences, both the CPI and CPI(M) became significant participants in parliamentary democracy. The CPI(M) achieved electoral success in states like West Bengal, Kerala, and Tripura, where it led governments that pursued land reforms, rural development, and education policies.

• In Kerala, the first communist government was elected democratically in 1957 under E.M.S. Namboodiripad, marking a historic global precedent.
• In West Bengal, the Left Front Government led by the CPI(M) remained in power for over three decades (1977–2011), implementing agrarian reforms and decentralised governance.
• The CPI and CPI(M) have also played major roles in national coalition politics, supporting secular and pro-labour policies and opposing privatisation and neoliberal reforms.

Contemporary Developments and Challenges

In the post-liberalisation era, the communist movement in India has faced significant challenges, including declining electoral support, fragmentation, and the rise of new political narratives centred on identity and regionalism. Economic globalisation, technological change, and the growth of the service sector have eroded traditional working-class bases.