China

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is one of the world’s most populous and geopolitically influential nations, situated in eastern Asia. With a civilisation spanning over three millennia, China has evolved from an ancient imperial power into a modern socialist state governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Its rapid industrialisation and economic transformation since the late twentieth century have redefined global trade, politics, and technological progress, positioning China as a central actor in contemporary international affairs.

Historical Background

China’s recorded civilisation dates back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 B.C.), followed by the Zhou Dynasty (1046–221 B.C.), which laid the foundations for Chinese philosophy and statecraft. The unification of warring states under Qin Shi Huang in 221 B.C. established the first imperial dynasty, the Qin, introducing a centralised bureaucracy that influenced governance for over two millennia.
Subsequent dynasties such as the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing oversaw cycles of expansion and decline, producing remarkable achievements in science, literature, and philosophy. By the nineteenth century, however, the Qing Dynasty faced decline due to internal rebellion, corruption, and foreign imperial incursions during the Opium Wars and the “Century of Humiliation.”
The 1911 Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen, overthrew the Qing monarchy and founded the Republic of China. Political instability followed, marked by warlordism and rivalry between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the emerging Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Japan’s invasion in 1937 devastated the nation, resulting in tens of millions of casualties. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, the civil war resumed, culminating in the Communist victory under Mao Zedong. On 1 October 1949, Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in Beijing.

The Communist Era and Economic Transformation

The early decades of Communist rule were defined by radical socio-economic campaigns. Under Mao Zedong, China implemented collectivisation and state-controlled industry. Initiatives such as the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) sought rapid industrialisation but resulted in widespread famine and millions of deaths. The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) further disrupted society, targeting perceived ideological enemies and stalling economic progress.
Following Mao’s death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping initiated sweeping economic reforms (1978 onwards), introducing market-oriented mechanisms while maintaining CCP political dominance. The reforms opened China to foreign investment, decentralised economic control, and encouraged private enterprise. Over the next four decades, China’s economy grew at an average annual rate exceeding 9%, lifting approximately 800 million people out of poverty and transforming the country into a global manufacturing hub.
Under Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, economic liberalisation and integration into the World Trade Organization (WTO, 2001) accelerated China’s global engagement. Xi Jinping, assuming leadership in 2013, consolidated political authority, reasserted ideological control, and launched initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to expand global infrastructure and trade networks.

Geography and Environment

Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, China is the fourth-largest country in the world, sharing borders with 14 nations, including Russia, India, Mongolia, and Vietnam. The landscape is diverse: the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau dominate the west, while fertile plains and river valleys define the east. Mount Everest (8,849 m), on the Nepal border, is the highest point on Earth.
Major rivers — the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) and Yellow River (Huang He) — have sustained dense populations and agriculture for millennia. The climate varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the north, producing diverse ecosystems.
China faces environmental challenges such as air pollution, desertification, water scarcity, and soil degradation. Nevertheless, it leads the world in renewable energy development, particularly hydropower, solar, and wind energy, reflecting commitments made under the Paris Agreement to reduce carbon emissions.

Population and Society

As of 2024, China’s population stands at approximately 1.4 billion, making it the most populous nation globally. About 91% identify as Han Chinese, with 55 officially recognised minority groups including Tibetans, Uighurs, Mongolians, and Zhuang contributing to cultural diversity.
Language: The official language is Mandarin (Putonghua), while regional dialects such as Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Hokkien are widely spoken.
Religion: The state promotes atheism, but Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, and Christianity have significant followings.
China’s urbanisation rate has reached 64.6%, driven by rapid migration from rural areas to cities such as Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, and Shenzhen. Literacy rates exceed 97%, and education expenditure accounts for about 4% of GDP.
Demographically, China faces an ageing population challenge, with a median age of 40.2 years and 14.4% aged 65 or older. The one-child policy (1979–2015), later replaced by a two-child policy, has led to population imbalances and declining fertility.

Government and Political Structure

The People’s Republic of China is a socialist one-party state governed exclusively by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since 1949.

• President: Xi Jinping (since 2013)
• Premier: Li Qiang (since 2023)

Political authority resides with the Politburo Standing Committee, the CCP’s highest decision-making body. The National People’s Congress (NPC), with approximately 3,000 deputies, serves as the unicameral legislature and formally enacts national laws.
The legal system is based on civil law, influenced by Soviet and continental European models. In 2020, China enacted a comprehensive Civil Code, consolidating property, contract, and family law.
Administratively, China consists of 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing), and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SARs) — Hong Kong and Macau — operating under the “one country, two systems” framework.

Economic Landscape

China’s economy is the second largest globally by nominal GDP and the largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). In 2024, GDP totalled approximately $18.7 trillion, underpinned by its manufacturing base and technological innovation.
Economic structure (2024):

• Agriculture: 6.8%
• Industry: 36.5%
• Services: 56.7%

China is a leading exporter of electronics, machinery, vehicles, and textiles, while importing petroleum, semiconductors, iron ore, and agricultural products. Major trading partners include the United States, Japan, South Korea, Germany, and Australia.
With foreign exchange reserves of $3.45 trillion, China maintains the world’s largest holdings. Growth remains moderate at around 5% (2024), reflecting a shift towards high-tech industries and domestic consumption. Strategic initiatives such as “Made in China 2025” and the Digital Silk Road emphasise advanced manufacturing, robotics, artificial intelligence, and green technologies.
Challenges include youth unemployment, regional inequality, local government debt, and the economic impact of demographic shifts.

Military and Global Influence

The People’s Liberation Army (PLA), established in 1927, is the world’s largest standing armed force with roughly 2 million active personnel. It comprises five branches: the Army, Navy, Air Force, Rocket Force, and Aerospace Force, supported by the People’s Armed Police and the China Coast Guard.
Military expenditure: approximately 1.5% of GDP (2024). China has advanced rapidly in cyber warfare, space technology, and ballistic missile development. The PLA operates globally through UN peacekeeping missions and maintains an overseas logistics base in Djibouti.
China’s space programme, managed by the China National Space Administration (CNSA), includes achievements such as manned spaceflights, lunar exploration, and Mars missions. Facilities at Jiuquan, Xichang, and Wenchang launch satellites and interplanetary probes.

Cultural and Global Significance

China’s cultural legacy encompasses thousands of years of philosophical, artistic, and scientific achievement. The teachings of Confucius, Laozi, and Buddhist scholars continue to influence East Asian thought. Traditional arts such as calligraphy, ink painting, and porcelain-making coexist with a dynamic contemporary culture in film, literature, and design.