Canada
Canada, the world’s second-largest country by total area, occupies the northern half of North America. It is renowned for its immense size, rich natural resources, and stable democratic institutions. Operating as a federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy, Canada maintains historical ties to the British Crown while enjoying close economic, political, and cultural relations with the United States. Today, it stands as one of the most prosperous, developed, and socially progressive nations, balancing robust economic growth with strong commitments to social welfare and environmental stewardship.
Historical and Political Background
Canada’s evolution into a sovereign nation was gradual, occurring within the framework of the British Empire. The country was formed in 1867 through the British North America Act, which united four provinces—Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia—into a federal dominion. Legislative independence came with the Statute of Westminster (1931), while full constitutional sovereignty was achieved through the Canada Act (1982), which patriated the constitution and established the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
As a Commonwealth realm, Canada recognises King Charles III as its head of state, represented domestically by Governor General Mary Simon. Executive authority rests with the Prime Minister, currently Mark Carney (since 2025), and the Federal Cabinet. The Parliament of Canada is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons (343 elected members) and the Senate (105 appointed members). The political landscape is dominated by the Liberal Party, with the Conservative Party, New Democratic Party (NDP), and Bloc Québécois also playing major roles.
The Supreme Court of Canada, comprising a Chief Justice and eight judges, is the highest judicial authority. Canada’s legal system is primarily based on common law, except in Quebec, which retains civil law traditions. Federalism allows provinces substantial autonomy over key areas such as healthcare, education, and natural resources.
Geography and Climate
Encompassing 9,984,670 square kilometres, Canada ranks second only to Russia in size. It possesses the world’s longest coastline—over 202,000 km—and shares an 8,891 km border with the United States. The country’s geography includes the Canadian Shield, vast prairies, and mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Coast Mountains. Canada also boasts immense freshwater reserves, including the Great Lakes, Great Bear Lake, and Great Slave Lake, which together constitute nearly 9% of its total area.
The climate varies greatly by region: the southern areas experience temperate conditions, while the northern territories endure subarctic and Arctic climates. The prevalence of permafrost restricts habitation and development in northern regions, while the southern plains support agriculture and dense population clusters. The nation’s natural wealth—petroleum, natural gas, minerals, timber, and hydroelectric potential—has long underpinned its prosperity and export-driven economy.
Demographics and Society
As of 2024, Canada’s population was approximately 38.79 million, reflecting moderate growth largely due to high immigration rates (5.3 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants). The median age is 42.6 years, and about 82% of Canadians live in urban areas, primarily along the southern border. The most populous provinces are Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia.
Canada’s population is notably multicultural, shaped by centuries of immigration. Major ancestral origins include Canadian (15.6%), English (14.7%), Scottish (12.1%), French (11%), and Irish (12.1%), alongside growing Asian communities such as Chinese (4.7%), Indian (3.7%), and Filipino (2.3%). English and French are both official languages; English predominates nationwide, while French dominates in Quebec.
Religious affiliation is increasingly diverse: Christianity accounts for 53.3% of the population, while 34.6% identify as non-religious. Islam (4.9%), Hinduism (2.3%), and Sikhism (2.1%) represent smaller yet growing communities.
Social indicators reflect Canada’s advanced development:
- Life expectancy: 84.2 years
- Infant mortality: 4.3 deaths per 1,000 live births
- Health expenditure: 11.2% of GDP
- Education expenditure: 4.5% of GDP
The publicly funded healthcare system ensures universal access, while education is provincially managed and compulsory until at least age 16. Gender equality is strong, with women representing over 30% of federal legislators and 55% of senators.
Economic Profile
Canada possesses a high-income, diversified economy, ranking among the world’s top twenty by GDP. In 2024, its GDP (PPP) was approximately $2.34 trillion, with per capita income at $56,700. The services sector contributes 66% of GDP, followed by industry (25%) and agriculture (1.6%).
Key industries include:
- Energy (oil, gas, and renewables)
- Automotive and aerospace manufacturing
- Information technology and finance
- Chemicals and machinery production
Agriculture remains globally significant, with Canada serving as a leading producer of wheat, rapeseed, and pulses. The nation’s natural resources include an estimated 170.3 billion barrels of crude oil and 2.07 trillion cubic metres of natural gas.
Trade is integral to the economy, with the United States accounting for 71% of exports and 51% of imports, primarily under the USMCA (formerly NAFTA) framework. Other key trade partners include China, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Mexico. Public debt stands at 61.3% of GDP, managed under sound fiscal policies.
Energy and Infrastructure
Canada ranks among the world’s top energy producers, generating approximately 5.68 million barrels of oil per day. Hydropower supplies 58% of electricity, with nuclear power (13.7%), wind (6%), and solar (1.4%) contributing to the energy mix. Coal use continues to decline amid carbon reduction goals.
Universal access to electricity and high energy consumption levels (312 million Btu per person) highlight Canada’s industrial capacity. The country’s infrastructure includes 1,459 airports, 49,422 km of railways, and 284 ports, with Vancouver, Montreal, and Halifax as principal maritime hubs. Internet penetration reached 94%, supported by one of the world’s most advanced telecommunications networks.
Defence and International Relations
The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) comprise the Army, Navy, and Air Force, supported by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Coast Guard. Defence spending reached 2% of GDP in 2025, fulfilling NATO commitments. The CAF’s 75,000 active personnel maintain strong cooperation with the United States through the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and other bilateral defence mechanisms.
Canada contributes to NATO deployments in Europe, UN peacekeeping missions, and humanitarian operations worldwide. Its foreign policy emphasises multilateralism, human rights, and climate diplomacy. Canada remains an influential member of the UN, NATO, G7, G20, OECD, WTO, and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Space and Science
The Canadian Space Agency (CSA), established in 1989, plays a leading role in space technology, particularly through innovations such as the Canadarm and Canadarm2, used on NASA missions and the International Space Station. Canada’s space initiatives focus on satellite communications, Earth observation, and planetary exploration. Collaborative partnerships with NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and India have expanded research and commercial space activity. New commercial spaceports are under development in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.
Environment and Sustainability
Canada’s natural landscape is one of the world’s most ecologically rich, encompassing 39.5% forest cover and more than two million lakes. It remains the most water-abundant nation globally. However, industrialisation has led to environmental challenges, including air pollution, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions. The nation emitted 586 million metric tonnes of CO₂ in 2024, ranking 11th globally.
As a signatory to the Paris Agreement, Canada is committed to carbon neutrality by mid-century. Federal policies promote renewable energy expansion, sustainable forestry, and electric vehicle adoption, aiming to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
Culture and National Identity
Canadian culture reflects a blend of Indigenous traditions, British and French heritage, and modern multiculturalism. National symbols such as the maple leaf, beaver, and red-and-white flag epitomise unity and diversity. The national anthem, “O Canada” (adopted in 1980), and the royal anthem, “God Save the King”, express the country’s dual cultural allegiance.
Canada’s 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites include L’Anse aux Meadows, Old Quebec, Gros Morne National Park, and the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, highlighting its historical and natural significance. Canada Day (1 July) marks the 1867 Confederation and serves as a celebration of national identity.