Brazil

Brazil, the largest and most populous nation in South America, dominates the continent geographically, economically, and culturally. Spanning from the vast Amazon Basin in the north to the temperate pampas in the south, it encompasses immense biodiversity, cultural diversity, and economic potential. Once a Portuguese colony, Brazil has evolved through monarchy, dictatorship, and democracy into a federal presidential republic and a major global player in trade, environmental policy, and international diplomacy.

Historical Development and Political Transformation

Brazil was a Portuguese colony from 1500 to 1822, when Dom Pedro I declared independence and established the Empire of Brazil. The monarchy endured until 1889, when the abolition of slavery (1888) and political unrest prompted the formation of a republic through a military coup.
The Old Republic (1889–1930) was dominated by regional oligarchs—the so-called “coffee with milk” politics—reflecting the power balance between São Paulo’s coffee producers and Minas Gerais’ dairy interests.
In 1930, Getúlio Vargas seized power, ushering in an era of state-led industrialisation and populist reform. His leadership oscillated between democracy and dictatorship until 1945, laying the foundations of Brazil’s modern political economy.
A brief period of democratic governance (1945–1964) ended with a military coup, establishing a two-decade dictatorship that repressed dissent but promoted industrial growth. The regime collapsed in 1985, leading to the 1988 Constitution, which restored democracy and enshrined broad civil rights.
In the early 2000s, Brazil rose as a global emerging power under Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (2003–2010), whose social welfare programmes such as Bolsa Família and booming commodity exports reduced poverty and inequality. However, the 2010s brought turbulence:

• Operation Lava Jato (Car Wash) exposed widespread corruption.
• President Dilma Rousseff was impeached in 2016.
• Lula was imprisoned in 2018 (later exonerated).
• Jair Bolsonaro’s presidency (2019–2022) marked a populist and polarised era.

Lula’s re-election in 2022 signified a political comeback, and during Brazil’s G20 presidency (2024) he prioritised sustainability, poverty reduction, and Amazon protection, signalling Brazil’s renewed leadership in global governance.

Geography and Environment

• Area: 8,515,770 sq km (slightly smaller than the continental United States)
• Borders: All South American countries except Chile and Ecuador
• Coastline: 7,491 km (Atlantic Ocean)
• Highest point: Pico da Neblina – 2,994 m

Brazil’s terrain encompasses diverse biomes:

• Amazon Rainforest – the world’s largest tropical forest, covering 59% of national territory.
• Pantanal Wetlands – the largest tropical wetland ecosystem on Earth.
• Cerrado Savannas, Atlantic Forest, and Caatinga Drylands – centres of biodiversity and agricultural expansion.

The Amazon, São Francisco, and Paraná river systems sustain agriculture, hydroelectricity, and transportation. The climate is predominantly tropical, with equatorial humidity in the north and subtropical conditions in the south.
Natural resources: Iron ore, bauxite, gold, petroleum, and timber. These drive Brazil’s export economy but also cause environmental pressures from deforestation, illegal mining, and urban pollution. Despite commitments under the Paris Agreement, balancing economic growth with conservation remains a central challenge.

People, Culture, and Society

Population (2024): 220 million (7th largest globally)Urbanisation: 87.8%Median age: 35.1 yearsLife expectancy: 76.3 yearsLiteracy rate: 93%
Brazil’s population is a multi-ethnic blend shaped by Indigenous, African, and European heritage:

• Mixed race (pardo): 45.3%
• White: 43.5%
• Black: 10.2%
• Indigenous and Asian: <1%

Language: Portuguese (official), with regional dialects and minority tongues.Religion: Roman Catholic (56.8%), Evangelical Protestant (26.9%), others (16.3%).
Brazil’s culture is renowned for its music (samba, bossa nova, funk), festivals (Carnival), and football, all central to its global identity.
Major metropolitan areas:

• São Paulo – 22.6 million (economic hub)
• Rio de Janeiro – 13.7 million (cultural capital)
• Brasília – 4.8 million (administrative capital)

Social welfare and education spending (5.5% of GDP) have expanded access to services, though income inequality, crime, and urban poverty persist. Public health investment (≈10% of GDP) has led to near-universal access to electricity, clean water, and vaccination, though rural healthcare and sanitation lag behind.

Political System and Governance

Brazil is a federal presidential republic governed by the 1988 Constitution.

• President: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (since 1 January 2023)
• Term: 4 years, renewable once consecutively
• Legislature: Bicameral National Congress (Congresso Nacional)
  • Chamber of Deputies: 513 members (proportional representation)
  • Federal Senate: 81 members (three per state)

The judiciary is independent, headed by the Supreme Federal Court (STF) with 11 justices overseeing constitutional review. Brazil follows a civil law system reformed in 2002.
The country’s 26 states and one Federal District enjoy wide autonomy, each with its own governor and legislature.
Major political parties:

• Workers’ Party (PT) – centre-left
• Liberal Party (PL) – right-wing
• Brazil Union (União Brasil) – centrist
• Social Democratic Party (PSD) – centre-right

Coalition politics often produce fragmented governance, requiring compromise across ideological lines.
Corruption and polarisation remain recurring challenges, yet Brazil’s democratic institutions have proven resilient since the 1980s.

Economic Landscape

GDP (2024):

• Nominal: $2.18 trillion
• PPP: $4.17 trillion (7th globally)
• Growth: 3.4%
• Inflation: 4.4%
• Public debt: 83% of GDP
• Unemployment: 7.7%
• Gini coefficient: 51.6 (high inequality)

Sectoral composition (2024):

• Agriculture: 5.6%
• Industry: 21.3%
• Services: 59.3%

Key exports: Soybeans, crude petroleum, iron ore, beef, sugar, coffee.Main partners: China (30%), United States (10%), Argentina (5%).Imports: Refined petroleum, fertilisers, machinery.Foreign reserves: $329 billion; external debt: $198 billion.
Brazil is a global agricultural superpower, a top oil producer, and a leader in aviation (via Embraer). Despite its scale, economic productivity is constrained by bureaucracy, infrastructure gaps, and inequality.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Innovation

Brazil has one of the largest transport networks in the developing world:

• Airports: 5,297 (2nd most globally)
• Railways: 29,000 km
• Major ports: Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Paranaguá

Energy mix (2024):

• Hydropower – 60%
• Wind – 13.5%
• Biomass – 8.3%
• Solar – 6.9%
• Fossil fuels – ~10%
• Nuclear – 2%

Brazil is a renewable energy leader, yet also one of the top 10 oil producers (≈4.2 million barrels/day).
Innovation: The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and INPE manage satellites, remote sensing, and launch sites at Alcântara and Barreira do Inferno. Brazil partners with NASA, ESA, and JAXA, highlighting its growing technological ambitions.

Defence and International Relations

Armed Forces: 360,000 personnel

• Army, Navy (with Marine Corps), and Air Force
• Budget: ≈1.2% of GDP

The military focuses on border defence, disaster relief, and peacekeeping. Brazil has Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) status with the United States and is a leading contributor to UN missions, notably in Haiti and Lebanon.
Brazil’s foreign policy emphasises multilateralism and South–South cooperation. It is a founding member of:

• BRICS
• G20
• UN (seeking Security Council reform)
• Mercosur
• Organization of American States (OAS)

Environmental and Global Significance

The Amazon rainforest—covering over 5 million sq km—is central to global climate regulation and carbon sequestration. Yet deforestation, driven by agriculture, logging, and mining, remains Brazil’s greatest ecological threat.
Under Lula’s administration, deforestation has declined through reforestation programmes, sustainable farming initiatives, and enhanced enforcement against illegal activities.
Brazil’s 24 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, from Brasília and Ouro Preto to Iguaçu National Park, reflect its cultural and natural wealth.
The national flag, with its green (forests), yellow (gold wealth), and blue (sky and unity), bears the motto “Ordem e Progresso”—“Order and Progress”—capturing Brazil’s enduring developmental vision.