Bangladesh

Bangladesh, officially the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, is a densely populated South Asian nation located on the fertile delta formed by the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers, bordered by India, Myanmar, and the Bay of Bengal. Emerging from a complex history of colonial rule, partition, and war, Bangladesh has transformed into one of the world’s fastest-growing emerging economies, driven by manufacturing, agriculture, and remittances. Despite ongoing challenges such as climate vulnerability, flooding, and political volatility, Bangladesh’s achievements in poverty reduction, healthcare, and education are widely regarded as a development success story.

Historical Background and Political Evolution

The Bengal delta, encompassing modern Bangladesh, has been inhabited for thousands of years, serving as a cultural meeting point between South Asian, Persian, and Islamic civilisations. Between the 7th and 12th centuries, the region was ruled by Hindu and Buddhist dynasties, including the Pala Empire, before Muslim traders and Sufi preachers from Arabia and Persia introduced Islam, shaping a unique cultural synthesis.
By the 16th century, European powers—initially the Portuguese, later the British—established trading posts along Bengal’s coast. Under British colonial rule (1757–1947), Bengal became both a centre of commerce and a site of social upheaval. The Partition of India (1947) divided Bengal into Hindu-majority West Bengal (India) and Muslim-majority East Bengal, renamed East Pakistan within the newly formed Pakistan, despite being separated from West Pakistan by 1,500 km of Indian territory.
Resentment over political marginalisation and economic neglect by West Pakistan led to a mass movement for autonomy. The Awami League (AL), led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, championed Bengali nationalism, culminating in the Bangladesh Liberation War (1971). Supported by India, the struggle ended with victory on 16 December 1971, when Bangladesh declared independence.
Post-independence, the country faced devastation, famine, and political instability. The assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (1975) triggered a period of military rule and political realignment, producing alternating regimes under the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the Awami League (AL). Parliamentary democracy was restored in 1991, though political rivalry and caretaker administrations continued intermittently.
Under Sheikh Hasina’s premiership from 2009 to 2024, Bangladesh experienced sustained economic growth and infrastructure development, but rising authoritarian tendencies provoked public dissent. Following her resignation amid mass protests in 2024, Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus was appointed interim Prime Minister, tasked with overseeing a transitional government and organising elections in 2026, marking a pivotal moment in the nation’s democratic evolution.

Geography and Environment

Bangladesh spans 148,460 square kilometres, roughly the size of Iowa, and ranks among the most fertile regions on Earth. Its flat alluvial landscape, formed by the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta, is interlaced with hundreds of rivers, wetlands, and floodplains. The average elevation is 85 metres, making the country highly prone to flooding, cyclones, and riverbank erosion.
The tropical monsoon climate features mild winters (October–March), hot, humid summers (March–June), and heavy monsoon rains (June–October). Despite its exposure to natural disasters, the delta’s fertility underpins a dense agricultural economy.
Natural resources include natural gas, coal, timber, and arable land. About 70% of land is used for agriculture, while forest cover stands at 14.5% and irrigated area totals 83,690 sq km. Major rivers such as the Padma (Ganges), Jamuna (Brahmaputra), and Meghna form one of the world’s most extensive riverine networks, supporting fisheries and inland transport.
Environmental issues include:

• Groundwater arsenic contamination in rural areas
• Soil degradation and deforestation
• Urban air and water pollution
• Sea-level rise threatening coastal communities

Bangladesh is a global leader in climate adaptation, with robust disaster management and early warning systems. It is party to the Paris Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Kyoto Protocol.

Demography and Society

With a population of 168.7 million (2024), Bangladesh is the eighth most populous country in the world, and one of the most densely populated, at over 1,200 people per sq km. The median age is 29.6 years, reflecting a young, dynamic population. The growth rate, however, has slowed to 0.89%, signalling a demographic transition.
Ethnicity is overwhelmingly Bengali (99%), with small indigenous groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Sylhet, and northern districts. Bangla (Bengali) is the official language, while English is widely used in administration and higher education. Islam is the state religion, adhered to by 91% of citizens; Hindus (8%) and Buddhists and Christians form recognised minorities.
Urbanisation is accelerating, with 40.5% of the population living in cities. Dhaka, the capital, exceeds 23 million inhabitants, making it one of the largest and most densely populated megacities globally. Other major cities include Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet.
Key social indicators (2024):

• Life expectancy: 75.2 years (male 73.1; female 77.5)
• Infant mortality: 28.8 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 2.07 children per woman
• Literacy rate: 79% (male 81%; female 77%)
• Poverty rate: 18.7%

Extreme poverty has fallen dramatically—from over 40% in 1991 to about 5% in 2022 (international poverty line)—driven by microfinance, rural empowerment, and export-led employment, particularly in the garment industry.

Government and Political Institutions

Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic under the 1972 Constitution, suspended during periods of military rule but reinstated in the 1990s. The President, Mohammad Shahabuddin Chuppi, serves as head of state, while executive power resides with the Prime Minister.
The unicameral National Parliament (Jatiya Sangsad) has 300 directly elected members serving five-year terms. Following the 2024 resignation of Sheikh Hasina, the interim administration under Muhammad Yunus is overseeing reforms and preparations for the 2026 elections.
The judicial system is based on English common law and statutory legislation, with personal laws for Muslims and Hindus. The Supreme Court comprises Appellate and High Court Divisions, ensuring constitutional oversight.
The country’s political life remains dominated by two major parties—the Awami League (AL) and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP)—alongside the Jatiya Party (JP) and Jamaat-e-Islami. Rivalry between AL and BNP has often led to polarisation and periodic unrest.

Economic Structure and Performance

Bangladesh’s economy has transitioned from agrarian dependence to an export-oriented industrial base. GDP (nominal) reached $450 billion (2024), with real growth of 4.2% and inflation of 10.5%. Despite external pressures, the country continues to expand manufacturing and infrastructure investment.
Sectoral composition (2024):

• Agriculture: 11.2%
• Industry: 34.1%
• Services: 51.4%

The ready-made garment (RMG) sector accounts for over 80% of exports, making Bangladesh the second-largest apparel exporter globally after China. Other exports include footwear, jute goods, and electronics, with main markets in the United States (16%), Germany (15%), and the United Kingdom (8%). Imports—chiefly refined petroleum, cotton, and machinery—come mainly from China and India.
Key indicators:

• Per capita GDP (PPP): $8,500
• Unemployment rate: 4.7%
• Remittances: 6% of GDP
• Public debt: 40% of GDP
• Foreign reserves: $21.4 billion

Bangladesh is on course to graduate from the UN’s Least Developed Countries (LDC) category in 2026, transitioning toward middle-income status. Persistent challenges include foreign exchange shortages, energy dependency, and infrastructure deficits, though the Padma Bridge, metro projects, and industrial zones highlight modernisation efforts.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Communication

Electricity access is near-universal (99.4%), though fossil fuels dominate generation (98%). Two nuclear reactors under construction at Rooppur will diversify energy supply, while solar power (1%) is expanding under green transition initiatives.
Transport infrastructure comprises 2,460 km of railways, 17 airports, and two major seaports (Chittagong and Mongla), vital for trade. The merchant fleet (558 vessels) underpins the export economy. Road congestion, however, remains a major constraint.
In communications, mobile penetration exceeds 191 million subscriptions, and Internet use reaches 45% of the population. Broadband connectivity continues to expand, supporting e-commerce and digital governance under the “Digital Bangladesh” initiative.

Defence and Security

The Bangladesh Armed Forces, consisting of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, number around 170,000 active personnel. Defence expenditure equals 0.9% of GDP, reflecting a defensive posture focused on territorial protection, disaster response, and UN peacekeeping.
Bangladesh ranks among the world’s top contributors to UN peace operations, with nearly 6,000 personnel deployed globally (2024). Domestically, paramilitary forces such as the Border Guard Bangladesh (BGB), Coast Guard, and the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) assist in counterterrorism, smuggling control, and internal security. The military plays a visible role in infrastructure and national development projects.

National Identity and Culture

The national flag—a red circle on a green field—symbolises sacrifice, fertility, and hope. The national emblem, the water lily, reflects Bangladesh’s agrarian roots, while the Bengal tiger serves as the national animal. The anthem, “Amar Shonar Bangla” (My Golden Bengal), written by Rabindranath Tagore, celebrates the nation’s natural beauty and liberation spirit.
Bangladesh’s World Heritage Sites include the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bagerhat’s historic mosques, and the Buddhist ruins of Paharpur, illustrating its religious and ecological diversity. Language Martyrs’ Day (21 February), commemorating those who died defending the Bengali language in 1952, is observed internationally as UNESCO’s International Mother Language Day.