Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign nation comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. Situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans in the Southern Hemisphere, it is the sixth-largest country in the world by area and the only one to govern an entire continent. Australia operates as a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy under the British Commonwealth. Its high-income, market-oriented economy and strategic geopolitical position make it a key player in international trade, regional security, and environmental management.

Historical Background

The history of Australia extends over 60,000 years, tracing back to the arrival of the Aboriginal Australians, who developed complex kinship systems and spiritual relationships with the land, often referred to as “Country.” The Torres Strait Islanders, residing north of Queensland, cultivated distinct maritime traditions and trading networks with neighbouring Melanesian peoples.
The first recorded European contact occurred in 1606, when Dutch navigator Abel Tasman explored parts of the western and northern coasts, naming the land New Holland. However, it was Captain James Cook’s 1770 expedition that formally claimed the eastern coast—New South Wales—for Great Britain. The first permanent European settlement followed in 1788, when the British established a penal colony at Sydney Cove, initiating large-scale colonisation.
Over the next decades, additional colonies were established: Tasmania (1825), Western Australia (1829), South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851), and Queensland (1859). Between 1788 and 1868, over 150,000 convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland. The gold rushes of the 1850s attracted free settlers, expanding the population and transforming the economy. Each colony gradually gained self-government, culminating in federation on 1 January 1901, when they united as the Commonwealth of Australia under a written constitution still in effect today.
Australia’s national identity was forged through its military contributions during the World Wars, particularly the Gallipoli campaign (1915), which remains a cornerstone of national remembrance commemorated annually on ANZAC Day. Following World War II, the nation entered a period of rapid industrial growth and mass immigration, including from southern Europe and Asia. The White Australia Policy, which restricted non-European immigration, was dismantled in the 1970s, leading to the emergence of a multicultural society.
From the late twentieth century onwards, Australia became known for its stable democracy, high standard of living, and active participation in global affairs, despite episodes of political turbulence in the early twenty-first century marked by frequent leadership changes.

Geography and Environment

Covering 7,741,220 square kilometres, Australia is the largest country in Oceania and the smallest inhabited continent. Surrounded entirely by ocean, it has no land borders but lies close to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and New Zealand. Its coastline spans 25,760 kilometres, with a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone.
The terrain is dominated by low plateaus and arid interior deserts, interspersed with fertile coastal plains. The Great Dividing Range, stretching along the eastern coast, forms the nation’s longest mountain chain. The highest point is Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m), while Lake Eyre, at 15 m below sea level, is the lowest.
Australia’s mineral wealth underpins its economy, with abundant reserves of iron ore, coal, gold, natural gas, uranium, and lithium. The climate varies widely—from tropical in the north to temperate in the south—while the interior (Outback) experiences extreme aridity. Natural hazards include bushfires, droughts, and cyclones, necessitating robust disaster management policies.
Australia’s biodiversity is globally unique, with approximately 10% of the world’s species endemic to the continent. Iconic fauna such as the kangaroo, koala, platypus, and emu exemplify its distinct ecology. Environmental challenges, including deforestation, soil erosion, and coral bleaching, threaten fragile ecosystems like the Great Barrier Reef, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Conservation and climate adaptation remain national priorities.

People and Society

As of 2024, Australia’s population stood at 26.7 million, heavily concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts, particularly in Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane. The population is highly urbanised and diverse: the majority are of British or Irish ancestry, while growing communities of Chinese, Indian, and Southeast Asian origin reflect more recent immigration patterns. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples constitute about 3% of the total population.
English is the official language, though over 200 languages are spoken, representing Australia’s multicultural character. Christianity remains the largest religion, but the proportion of citizens identifying as non-religious continues to rise.
Australia enjoys one of the highest living standards globally, with life expectancy at 83.5 years, universal healthcare, and near-total access to clean water and sanitation. Education is compulsory until age 16 or 17, and public expenditure on education stands at 5.2% of GDP, supporting a literacy rate exceeding 99%. The country’s social model combines liberal democracy with strong welfare and labour protections.

Government and Politics

Australia operates as a federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. The British monarch, currently King Charles III, serves as head of state, represented domestically by the Governor-General. The Prime Minister—currently Anthony Albanese (in office since 2022)—acts as head of government.
The Parliament of Australia consists of two chambers:

• House of Representatives (150 seats)
• Senate (76 seats)

Members are directly elected through a mix of majority and proportional representation systems, with compulsory voting for citizens aged 18 and over. The legal system is based on English common law, and the High Court of Australia is the nation’s highest judicial authority.
The federation comprises six states—New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania—and two self-governing territories: the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Each has its own parliament and constitutional responsibilities.

Economy

Australia possesses a high-income, market-oriented economy, ranked among the world’s top 25. In 2024, its GDP (PPP) reached approximately US$1.6 trillion, with GDP per capita around US$60,000. The service sector dominates (65.5%), followed by industry (26%) and agriculture (2.2%).
The nation’s prosperity rests heavily on natural resource exports, particularly iron ore, coal, natural gas, and gold, which constitute the majority of trade revenue. China, Japan, South Korea, India, and the United States are its principal trading partners.
Despite strong fundamentals, structural challenges persist—namely housing affordability, productivity stagnation, and an ageing population. The unemployment rate in 2024 stood at 4.1%, with inflation at 3.2%. The Australian dollar (AUD) remains stable, supported by a sound financial system and prudent fiscal management.
Australia is also a renewable energy leader, with solar and wind providing nearly 30% of installed capacity, though coal still dominates electricity generation. Long-term plans aim to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.

Defence and International Relations

The Australian Defence Force (ADF) consists of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, with approximately 60,000 active personnel. Defence spending equals about 2% of GDP, focusing on modernisation, cybersecurity, and long-range strike capabilities.
Australia maintains strategic alliances through the ANZUS Treaty (with the United States and New Zealand) and the AUKUS Alliance (with the United Kingdom and United States), which includes plans for nuclear-powered submarines and advanced defence technologies.
Diplomatically, Australia is a proactive member of the United Nations, G20, OECD, APEC, and the Pacific Islands Forum. Its Indo-Pacific foreign policy prioritises regional stability, climate cooperation, and countering transnational threats.

Cultural and National Identity

Australian culture blends Indigenous traditions, British colonial heritage, and multicultural influences. National identity is reinforced through shared observances such as ANZAC Day, Australia Day, and major sporting events, notably in cricket, rugby, and Australian Rules football.
The nation’s symbols include the Southern Cross constellation, the Commonwealth Star, and the golden wattle, the national floral emblem. The national anthem, “Advance Australia Fair,” was adopted in 1984, while “Waltzing Matilda” endures as an unofficial folk anthem.
Cultural landmarks such as the Sydney Opera House, Uluru (Ayers Rock), and Great Barrier Reef embody Australia’s artistic and environmental spirit. Contemporary debates focus on constitutional recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, reflecting the ongoing journey toward reconciliation and national unity.