Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb, formally known as Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir, was the sixth and last of the great Mughal emperors of India. He reigned from 1658 to 1707 CE, marking the longest reign in Mughal history. His rule represented both the zenith and the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire. Known for his administrative discipline, military expansion, and deep personal piety, Aurangzeb’s reign was also characterised by religious orthodoxy, prolonged wars, and internal revolts that gradually weakened the imperial structure established by his predecessors.

Early Life and Background

Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618 CE at Dahod, in present-day Gujarat, to Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal. He was the third son of the couple and grew up during the height of Mughal prosperity and cultural splendour.
Educated in Persian, Arabic, law, and theology, Aurangzeb exhibited a serious, disciplined temperament from an early age, in contrast to his elder brothers, Dara Shikoh and Shuja. His deep interest in Islamic studies and austere lifestyle foreshadowed his later religious conservatism.
He first gained prominence as a military commander under his father and held key governorships in Deccan, Gujarat, and Multan, where he demonstrated administrative efficiency and strategic skill.

War of Succession

The death of Shah Jahan’s beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631 and the subsequent completion of the Taj Mahal in her memory marked the height of Mughal grandeur. However, by the 1650s, Shah Jahan’s health began to decline, triggering a succession struggle among his four sons — Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb, an able strategist and shrewd politician, defeated his rivals through a combination of military prowess and tactical alliances:

• Defeated Dara Shikoh, his father’s chosen heir, in the Battle of Samugarh (1658) near Agra.
• Consolidated power by defeating Murad Baksh and Shuja, securing control over the empire.
• Imprisoned Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort, where the emperor spent the last eight years of his life.

Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 CE, adopting the regal title Alamgir (meaning “Conqueror of the World”).

Expansion and Administration

Aurangzeb expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from Kashmir in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south, and from Bengal in the east to Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the west.
1. Military Campaigns:

• Deccan Campaigns: Aurangzeb devoted much of his reign to subduing the Deccan Sultanates and the rising power of the Marathas under Shivaji.
  • Captured Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), annexing them into the Mughal Empire.
  • Fought a long and costly war against the Marathas, marked by guerrilla tactics and relentless resistance.
• Northwestern Campaigns: Consolidated Mughal control over Kabul, Kandahar, and parts of Baluchistan.
• Rajasthan and Bundelkhand: Fought against Rajput rulers such as Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Marwar and Rana Raj Singh of Mewar, though relations with Rajputs deteriorated compared to the tolerant policies of Akbar and Jahangir.

2. Administration: Aurangzeb was a capable and meticulous administrator who maintained strict financial discipline.

• Continued the centralised administrative system established by Akbar, based on the Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems.
• Personally supervised revenue collection, military appointments, and judicial affairs.
• Simplified court ceremonies and reduced lavish royal expenditure to maintain austerity.
• Enforced Sharia (Islamic law) in administration and reintroduced the Jizya tax (a poll tax on non-Muslims) in 1679, which had been abolished by Akbar.

Religious Policy

Aurangzeb’s religious outlook was one of the most controversial aspects of his rule. Unlike his predecessors, who followed policies of tolerance and syncretism, Aurangzeb sought to align governance with orthodox Sunni Islam.
1. Promotion of Islamic Law:

• Commissioned the compilation of Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a comprehensive code of Islamic jurisprudence.
• Appointed Muhtasibs (moral officers) to ensure adherence to Islamic conduct in public life.

2. Religious Intolerance:

• Reimposed Jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
• Ordered the destruction of certain temples that were allegedly built without imperial sanction or associated with rebellion (e.g., the Kashi Vishwanath Temple at Varanasi and Kesava Deo Temple at Mathura).
• Restricted the celebration of Hindu festivals in public and banned music and dance at court.

3. Patronage of Scholars: Despite his orthodoxy, Aurangzeb was a patron of Islamic learning, supporting scholars, theologians, and calligraphers. However, his rigid religious policies alienated many non-Muslim groups, including Rajputs, Sikhs, and Marathas.

Relations with Regional Powers

1. The Marathas: Aurangzeb’s prolonged war against the Marathas, initiated by Shivaji’s rise and coronation in 1674, became the defining conflict of his later years.

• Captured and imprisoned Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji, in 1689, but the Maratha resistance continued under successors.
• The 25-year-long Deccan War drained the Mughal treasury and overstretched its military resources.

2. The Sikhs: Aurangzeb’s execution of the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, in 1675 for resisting forced conversions sowed deep resentment among the Sikhs.

• His successor, Guru Gobind Singh, transformed Sikhism into a militant community, founding the Khalsa in 1699, marking the beginning of open resistance to Mughal authority.

3. The Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s confrontations with the Rathore rulers of Marwar and the Sisodias of Mewar undermined the long-standing Mughal-Rajput alliance that had stabilised northern India since Akbar’s time.

Cultural and Economic Aspects

Aurangzeb’s reign was marked by austerity and conservatism, contrasting sharply with the cultural opulence of earlier Mughal courts.

• Architecture: Although he disapproved of lavish constructions, some notable structures from his period include the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore and the Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad (built by his son Azam Shah in memory of Aurangzeb’s wife, Dilras Banu Begum).
• Arts and Music: He discouraged court music and disbanded the imperial musicians, yet regional art and architecture continued to flourish independently.
• Economy: Despite continuous warfare, the empire remained economically prosperous for much of his reign, supported by extensive trade networks and agrarian production. However, the cost of military campaigns eventually strained the treasury.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 CE marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire’s decline. Several factors contributed to this downturn:

• Overexpansion: The empire had become too vast to govern efficiently.
• Continuous Warfare: Decades of Deccan campaigns exhausted financial and military resources.
• Alienation of Allies: His religious and political policies alienated Rajputs, Sikhs, and Marathas, weakening imperial cohesion.
• Administrative Strain: The mansabdari system began to collapse under the pressure of corruption and inefficiency.
• Succession Conflicts: After his death, frequent wars of succession further fragmented imperial authority.

Death and Legacy

Aurangzeb died on 3 March 1707 CE at Ahmadnagar in the Deccan, at the age of 88, after nearly 50 years on the throne. In keeping with his austere lifestyle, he was buried in a simple grave at Khuldabad, near Aurangabad, without any grand mausoleum — a striking contrast to the architectural splendour of his predecessors’ tombs.
Legacy: Aurangzeb remains one of the most complex and debated figures in Indian history.

• To his supporters, he was a disciplined, devout, and principled ruler who upheld Islamic law and expanded the Mughal Empire to its largest extent.
• To his critics, he was a rigid, intolerant monarch whose orthodoxy and relentless warfare eroded the empire’s unity and prosperity.