Akbar’s Administrative Reforms

The reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) marks a golden period in the history of the Mughal Empire, characterised by political stability, efficient governance, and cultural integration. Akbar’s administrative reforms were the cornerstone of his empire’s strength and longevity. He reorganised the Mughal state on principles of centralisation, rational governance, and inclusivity, laying the foundation of one of the most effective pre-modern administrative systems in Indian history.
Akbar’s administrative system combined Persian-Islamic political traditions with Indian administrative practices, creating a uniquely integrated model that balanced central authority with local participation.

Background

When Akbar assumed power in 1556 at the age of thirteen, the Mughal Empire was still fragile and recovering from the political instability that followed Humayun’s exile and the Sur Empire (Sher Shah Suri).
Akbar inherited administrative models from both his predecessors and the Afghans but undertook major reforms under the guidance of capable ministers, notably Bairam Khan (his regent) and later Raja Todar Mal, Abul Fazl, and Birbal.
His reforms aimed at:

• Consolidating imperial authority.
• Ensuring administrative efficiency.
• Promoting economic prosperity and justice.
• Integrating diverse religious and regional groups into a unified polity.

1. Central Administration

Akbar’s central administration was based on a hierarchical structure with the emperor as the supreme authority, assisted by a council of ministers (Diwan-i-Kul).

The Emperor

• The emperor was the pivot of the entire administration, holding absolute power in all civil, military, and judicial matters.
• He was seen as the “Shadow of God” (Zill-e-Ilahi) and responsible for ensuring justice, prosperity, and welfare.

Important Central Departments and Officers

These departments functioned under the emperor’s supervision but maintained well-defined jurisdictions and accountability.

2. Provincial Administration

Akbar divided the empire into Subas (provinces) for effective governance, establishing a uniform administrative framework across the realm.

• Initially, there were 12 Subas, later increased to 15 by the end of his reign.
• Each Suba replicated the central administrative structure and was headed by officials responsible for law, order, and revenue collection.

Key Provincial Officers

Each province was further divided into Sarkars (districts), which were subdivided into Parganas and villages, forming a pyramidical structure of administration.

3. The Mansabdari System

One of Akbar’s most innovative administrative reforms was the Mansabdari system, introduced to streamline the civil and military bureaucracy.

Features of the System

1. Mansab:
   • The term Mansab means rank or position.
   • Every officer in the Mughal service was assigned a mansab, which determined his status, pay, and military responsibilities.
2. Dual Ranks – Zat and Sawar:
   • Zat: Indicated an officer’s personal rank and salary.
   • Sawar: Denoted the number of cavalry (horsemen) an officer was required to maintain for imperial service.
3. Hierarchy:
   • Mansabdars were graded from 10 to 10,000 based on their rank.
   • High-ranking nobles such as princes held the highest mansabs.
4. Transfer and Promotion:
   • Ranks were not hereditary; promotions were based on merit, loyalty, and imperial favour.
5. Checks and Balances:
   • The Mir Bakshi maintained records of mansabdars, while Diwan audited their salaries and expenses.
6. Integration:
   • The system brought both civil and military officers under a single chain of command, ensuring administrative cohesion.

Significance

• Created a centralised and loyal nobility dependent on the emperor.
• Prevented hereditary aristocracy.
• Rationalised military organisation and ensured efficiency.

4. Revenue Administration

The revenue system under Akbar was one of his greatest administrative achievements. It was organised by Raja Todar Mal, his finance minister, and became known as the Todar Mal Bandobast or the Dahsala system.

Key Features

1. Survey and Measurement:
   • Comprehensive land surveys were conducted using standard measuring rods (Ilahi Gaz).
   • Land was classified based on fertility and productivity into:
     • Polaj (cultivated annually),
     • Parauti (periodically cultivated),
     • Chachar (fallow),
     • Banjar (barren).
2. Assessment of Revenue:
   • The average yield and price of crops over the previous ten years were calculated.
   • The state’s share was fixed at one-third of the average produce, payable in cash or kind.
3. Mode of Collection:
   • Revenue was collected directly from cultivators (ryots) through government officials, reducing intermediary exploitation.
4. Record Keeping:
   • Detailed registers were maintained at every level for transparency.
5. Revenue Officers:
   • Amil / Karori: Responsible for collection.
   • Qanungo: Maintained local records.
   • Patwari: Village accountant.

Impact

• Enhanced efficiency and fairness in taxation.
• Stabilised the empire’s revenue base.
• Encouraged agricultural expansion and prosperity.

5. Judicial and Legal Reforms

Akbar introduced significant reforms to ensure justice and equality:

• The emperor was the supreme judge, and appeals could be made directly to him.
• The Qazis administered justice based on Islamic law (Sharia) for Muslims, while customary laws were applied to non-Muslims.
• Akbar appointed Hindu officials in judicial and administrative posts, promoting religious inclusivity.
• He abolished inhumane punishments and introduced fair trials and recorded judgments.

6. Military Administration

• The Mughal army under Akbar comprised infantry, cavalry, artillery, and navy.
• The cavalry formed the backbone, maintained through the mansabdari system.
• Branding of horses (dagh) and descriptive rolls of soldiers (chehra) were introduced to prevent corruption and ensure accountability.
• Akbar maintained a standing army directly under imperial control.

7. Religious and Social Reforms

Although primarily administrative, many of Akbar’s policies had significant social and religious implications.

• Abolition of Jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and Pilgrimage Tax.
• Promotion of the policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace) to ensure religious tolerance.
• Appointment of people from diverse backgrounds — Hindus, Persians, Afghans, and Rajputs — to administrative posts.
• Establishment of Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) for interfaith dialogue.

These measures strengthened internal harmony and secured loyalty from different communities.

8. System of Communication and Intelligence

• Akbar developed an extensive postal and courier network for communication across the empire.
• The Barid system (intelligence network) collected information from provinces and reported directly to the emperor.
• This system enhanced central control and helped prevent local revolts.

9. Coinage and Calendar Reforms

• Akbar introduced a uniform currency system, including gold (mohur), silver (rupee), and copper (dam).
• In 1584, he introduced the Ilahi Era, based on the solar calendar, for administrative and revenue purposes.

10. Public Works and Welfare

• Akbar encouraged construction of roads, sarais (rest houses), wells, and bridges to promote trade and mobility.
• He established hospitals, orphanages, and granaries to assist the poor and needy.
• His capital cities — Fatehpur Sikri and later Lahore and Agra — became centres of culture and administration.

Impact and Legacy of Akbar’s Administrative Reforms

1. Centralised Governance:
   • Akbar’s reforms created a strong, centralised administrative framework that remained effective for nearly a century after his death.
2. Religious and Cultural Integration:
   • His inclusive policies strengthened the unity of the empire and promoted Indo-Islamic cultural synthesis.
3. Economic Prosperity:
   • The efficient revenue system boosted agricultural production and state income.
4. Bureaucratic Efficiency:
   • The mansabdari system established a professional bureaucracy loyal to the emperor.
5. Model for Successors:
   • His administrative model was adopted and modified by later rulers, including the Marathas and the British.