Peasant Movements and Indian Nationalism

Peasant movements formed a major pillar of the Indian freedom struggle, transforming local agrarian discontent into a unified anti-colonial force. Under British rule, traditional village economies collapsed due to heavy land revenue demands, exploitative land tenure systems, commercialization of agriculture, and the rise of intermediary landlords. From localized revolts against oppressive landlords and colonial officials to institutionalized national agitations, peasant resistance expanded the social base of Indian nationalism and forced political parties to integrate radical land reforms into their core governance agendas.

Evolution of Peasant Resistance

Early Colonial Phase (1757–1857)

Early peasant uprisings emerged as spontaneous, localized reactions against foreign rule, British tax collectors, and new landowning elites created under colonial tenure systems.

• Sannyasi and Fakir Rebellion (1770–1800s): Displaced peasants and religious ascetics revolted in Bengal following the Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and British restrictions on pilgrimage taxes.
• Santhal Hool (1855–1856): Tribal peasants led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu rose against British authorities, Mahajans (moneylenders), and Zamindars in the Rajmahal Hills.
• Indigo Revolt (1859–1860): Bengal peasants, led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Charan Biswas, refused to cultivate indigo under coerced contracts enforced by European planters.

Transition to Organized Resistance (1870s–1915)

In the late 19th century, peasant struggles became more structured, focusing on legal rights, debt relief, and fair rent assessments.

• Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1870s–1880s): Tenants in East Bengal formed resistance leagues to fight against arbitrary rent hikes and illegal eviction practices by Zamindars, leading to the passage of the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885.
• Deccan Riots (1875): Agrarian distress in Maharashtra caused by dropping cotton prices led peasants to target moneylenders’ records and account books, resulting in the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act of 1879.
• Punjab Peasant Unrest (1900s): Resistance against rural land alienation forced the government to pass the Punjab Alienation of Land Act in 1900, restricting the transfer of agricultural land to non-agricultural moneylenders.

Integration with the National Movement

The Gandhian Phase

Mahatma Gandhi introduced non-violent civil disobedience to rural India, directly linking local peasant grievances to the broader struggle for Swaraj.

Institutionalization and Radicalization (1930s–1940s)

The Great Depression of 1929 devastated agricultural prices, driving peasant organizations to unite under national institutional frameworks.

• All India Kisan Sabha (1936): Founded at Lucknow with Swami Sahajanand Saraswati as President and N. G. Ranga as General Secretary, providing a unified national platform for agrarian rights.
• Congress Ministries (1937–1939): Provincial governments passed tenancy protection acts in Bihar, the United Provinces, and Bombay due to sustained peasant pressure.
• Bakhasht Movement (1936–1939): Led by Swami Sahajanand and Karyanand Sharma in Bihar to reclaim tenant lands confiscated by landlords during the Depression.
• Tebhaga Movement (1946–1947): Bengal sharecroppers (Bargadars) demanded two-thirds of the harvest share based on the Floud Commission recommendations.
• Telangana Armed Struggle (1946–1951): Communist-led peasant revolt in Hyderabad State against the Vetti (forced labor) system, feudal Deshmukhs, and the Nizam’s regime.

Key Intermediaries and Exploitative Systems

Revenue Systems

• Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, creating absolute landlord ownership (Zamindars) and insecure tenures for actual tillers.
• Ryotwari System (1820): Established by Thomas Munro in Madras and Bombay, making direct settlements with peasant cultivators (Ryots), though subject to high official tax assessments.
• Mahalwari System (1822): Formulated by Holt Mackenzie in North-West Provinces and Punjab, holding entire village communities (Mahals) collectively responsible for land revenue.

Coercive Practices

• Begar / Vetti: Unpaid forced labor extracted from lower-caste agricultural workers and tenant families by feudal landlords.
• Abwabs: Arbitrary, illegal cesses collected by landlords for personal expenses, religious functions, or administrative costs.
• Nazrana: High renewal fees demanded by landholders from tenants seeking to retain their agricultural plots.

Key Facts for Quick Revision

• The Indigo Revolt (1859–1860) was documented by Dinabandhu Mitra in his famous Bengali play Nil Darpan.
• The Pabna Revolt of 1873 led directly to the enactment of the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885.
• The Deccan Riots Commission was established in 1875 to investigate rural indebtedness in Western India.
• Baba Ramchandra organized the peasants of Awadh in 1920, establishing the Oudh Kisan Sabha in Pratapgarh.
• The Eka Movement (1921–1922) in the northern districts of Awadh was led by Madari Pasi.
• The Coolie-Begar movement in Kumaon reached its climax in January 1921 at Bageshwar, where official forced labor registers were dumped into the Saryu River.
• The All India Kisan Sabha released its radical Kisan Manifesto in August 1936 in Bombay.
• The Faizpur Congress session of 1936 was the first annual Congress session held in a rural location.
• The Floud Commission (1938–1940) recommended granting a two-thirds share of agricultural produce to Bengal sharecroppers.
• The Bhoodan Movement was launched by Vinoba Bhave at Pochampally village in Nalgonda district on April 18, 1951, following the Telangana Peasant Struggle.