Lord Hastings and Expansion of British Paramountcy

Lord Hastings (Francis Rawdon-Hastings, Earl of Moira) served as Governor-General of Bengal from 1813 to 1823, marking a decisive shift from the policy of non-intervention to active territorial expansion. His tenure formally established British paramountcy over India, transforming the East India Company from an equal regional power into the supreme sovereign authority across the subcontinent. Through military campaigns against the Gurkhas of Nepal, the suppression of Pindari raiders, the final destruction of the Maratha Confederacy, and strategic treaties with Rajput states, Hastings integrated vast territories into the colonial framework while introducing key administrative and educational reforms.

Anglo-Nepalese War and the Treaty of Sugauli (1814–1816)

Border disputes along the northern frontiers of Bengal and Awadh led to military conflict between the East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal.

Causes and Military Campaigns

• Encroachments by Gurkha forces under Amar Singh Thapa into the border districts of Sheoraj and Butwal triggered the declaration of war in October 1814.
• Initial British offensives faced severe setbacks in the Himalayan terrain, including the death of Major General Gillespie at the Siege of Kalunga.
• British forces under General David Ochterlony turned the tide by capturing the forts of Ramgarh and Maloun, forcing the Gurkhas to capitulate.

Treaty of Sugauli (1816)

• Signed in December 1815 and ratified in March 1816, finalizing peace between Britain and Nepal.
• Nepal ceded the tarai regions, Garhwal, Kumaon, and Sikkim to the East India Company.
• The Gurkhas withdrew from Sikkim and agreed to receive a permanent British Resident at Kathmandu.
• The treaty secured the hill stations of Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Ranikhet for the British, along with access to trade routes into Central Asia and Tibet.

Suppression of the Pindaris (1817–1818)

The Pindaris were irregular horsemen attached to Maratha armies who carried out destructive raids across Central India, Rajputana, and Mirzapur.

Origin and Composition

• Composed of diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Pathans, Marathas, and Jats, operating under leaders like Wasil Mohammad, Chitu, and Karim Khan.
• Amir Khan was the most formidable Pindari leader, operating a well-equipped military force in Rajasthan.

Campaign and Pacification

• Hastings mobilized a massive force of nearly 120,000 men—the Grand Army—divided into the Northern Army under his personal command and the Southern Army under Sir Thomas Hislop.
• Amir Khan submitted to the British and signed a treaty in 1817, receiving the principality of Tonk in return for disbanding his troops.
• Wasil Mohammad was captured and committed suicide in prison; Karim Khan surrendered and was granted an estate at Gorakhpur; Chitu fled into the jungles and was killed by a tiger.

Third Anglo-Maratha War and Extinction of the Peshwaship (1817–1818)

The encirclement of Maratha territories during the anti-Pindari operations, combined with restrictive treaties, forced Maratha chiefs into a final struggle against British dominance.

Pre-War Treaties Forced by Hastings

• Treaty of Poona (June 1817): Forced Peshwa Baji Rao II to give up leadership of the Maratha Confederacy and cede the Konkan territory.
• Treaty of Gwalior (November 1817): Compelled Daulat Rao Sindhia to remain neutral and assist the British against the Pindaris.
• Treaty of Nagpur (November 1817): Signed with Mudhoji II Bhonsle (Appa Sahib) to bind Nagpur to Company oversight.

Military Engagements and Defeat

• Peshwa Baji Rao II attacked the British Residency at Poona, but was defeated at the Battle of Khadki (November 1817).
• Appa Sahib of Nagpur was defeated at the Battle of Sitabuldi (November 1817).
• Malhar Rao Holkar II was crushed by Sir Thomas Hislop at the Battle of Mahidpur (December 1817).
• Peshwa Baji Rao II surrendered in June 1818 after defeats at Koregaon and Ashti.

| Maratha Territory / Chief | Post-War Settlement / Action | Historical Outcome | | | | | | Peshwaship | Abolished by Hastings in 1818. | Baji Rao II was pensioned off to Bithoor near Kanpur on an annual grant of ₹8 lakh. | | Satara State | Created out of Peshwa’s territory. | Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Chhatrapati Shivaji, was installed as ruler. | | Holkar (Indore) | Signed Treaty of Mandsaur (1818). | Accepted Subsidiary Alliance; ceded territories south of the Narmada River. | | Bhonsle (Nagpur) | Appa Sahib deposed after escaping. | A minor descendant was placed on the throne under direct British regency. | | Sindhia (Gwalior) | Maintained nominal status. | Accepted British supremacy and ceded Ajmer to the East India Company. |

Subjugation of Rajputana and Assertion of Paramountcy

Hastings systematically brought the princely states of Rajputana under British protection through a network of subordinate alliances.

Treaties with Rajput States (1817–1823)

• Charles Metcalfe, the Resident at Delhi, was entrusted with negotiating treaties with the Rajput clans.
• Kota, Udaipur (Mewar), Jodhpur (Marwar), Jaipur, Bundi, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer accepted British suzerainty between 1817 and 1818.
• Sirohi was the last Rajput state to sign a protective treaty in 1823.
• The Rajput states surrendered their foreign relations, agreed to pay tribute, and accepted British arbitration in internal disputes in exchange for defense against Maratha and Pindari raids.

Definition of Paramountcy

• Hastings declared that British supremacy replaced Mughal sovereignty over all Indian states.
• The East India Company claimed the right to intervene in internal succession disputes, arbitrate inter-state conflicts, and regulate native military forces.

Internal Administration, Land Reforms, and Press Regulations

Hastings introduced administrative changes to govern newly acquired territories and support agricultural productivity.

Land Revenue and Judicial Reforms

• Thomas Munro introduced the Ryotwari System in the Madras Presidency in 1820 under Hastings’ authority, settling revenue directly with individual cultivators (ryots).
• Holt Mackenzie formulated the initial plan for the Mahalwari System in the Western Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh) through Regulation VII of 1822.
• The Bengal Tenancy Act was passed to offer tenancy rights to agricultural occupants.
• Local Panchayats were revived to settle petty civil disputes, reducing court backlogs.

Press Policy and Educational Initiatives

• Abolished the strict censorship regulations imposed by Lord Wellesley in 1799.
• Issued new guidelines in 1818 that allowed freer press commentary, leading to the rise of vernacular journalism.
• Supported the establishment of the Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and David Hare.
• Encouraged the Calcutta School Book Society (1817) and the Calcutta School Society (1818) to print and distribute educational books.

Key Historical Facts for Quick Revision

• Lord Hastings was originally known as Francis Rawdon-Hastings, Earl of Moira; he was raised to the Marquess of Hastings in 1816 following his success in the Nepalese War.
• General David Ochterlony was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath for his leadership in the Anglo-Nepalese War.
• The Treaty of Sugauli (1816) created the recruitment framework for Gurkha soldiers within the British Indian Army.
• The principality of Tonk, created for Pindari chief Amir Khan in 1817, was the only Muslim-ruled princely state in Rajasthan.
• Samachar Darpan, the first Bengali weekly newspaper, was published by the Serampore Missionaries in 1818 during Hastings’ tenure.
• The Palmer and Company financial scandal in Hyderabad damaged Hastings’ reputation toward the end of his term, leading to his resignation in 1823.
• The Battle of Koregaon (January 1, 1818) saw a small British force composed largely of Mahar soldiers successfully defend against the larger army of Peshwa Baji Rao II.