Growth of Communalism in Modern India

Communalism in modern India emerged as an ideological tool that used religious identities to achieve political and economic objectives. It was not a remnant of ancient or medieval traditions, but a modern political phenomenon that grew under British colonial rule. The British policy of Divide and Rule, combined with uneven socio-economic development, played a central role in transforming religious consciousness into political hostility.

Stages of Communal Development

Historian Bipan Chandra categorized the growth of communalism in India into three distinct phases.

Communal Nationalism

This initial stage emerged in the late nineteenth century. It was based on the belief that people who follow the same religion share common secular interests in politics, economics, and culture.

Liberal Communalism

This phase developed in the early twentieth century. It accepted that different religious communities have distinct political and economic interests, but believed these interests could be reconciled within a single nation.

Extreme or Fascist Communalism

This stage gathered strength after 1937. It posited that Hindus and Muslims form two separate nations with diametrically opposed interests that could never coexist peacefully. This phase directly culminated in the partition of India in 1947.

Key Factors Driving Communalism

Colonial Policy of Divide and Rule

• The British administration used religious divisions to counter the growing nationalist movement after the Revolt of 1857.
• Lord Minto introduced separate electorates for Muslims through the Indian Councils Act of 1909, institutionalizing religious division in formal politics.
• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 extended separate electorates to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.

Socio-Economic Lag and Competition

• Modern education and industrial development expanded unevenly across regions and communities.
• Muslims lagged behind Hindus in modern education, commercial ventures, and civil service recruitment during the nineteenth century.
• Middle-class rivalry for limited government jobs intensified religious polarization as leaders used communal appeals to secure economic concessions.

Role of Religious Reform and Revivalism

• Nineteenth-century socio-religious reform movements often relied on religious symbols to mobilize masses.
• Movements like the Arya Samaj used Shuddhi (reconversion) campaigns, while Islamic groups promoted Tabligh and Tanzim movements, increasing communal friction.
• The glorification of ancient Hindu history or medieval Islamic rule created selective historical narratives that alienated other communities.

Major Milestones and Organizations

| Year | Event / Organization | Historical Impact | | | | | | 1875 | Aligarh Movement | Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan; initially focused on modern education, later opposed Congress politics. | | 1906 | Muslim League | Formed at Dacca under Nawab Salimullah and Aga Khan to represent Muslim political rights. | | 1909 | Morley-Minto Reforms | Granted separate electorates to Muslims, embedding communalism into the constitution. | | 1915 | Hindu Mahasabha | Founded by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya to safeguard Hindu interests. | | 1916 | Lucknow Pact | Congress accepted separate electorates to gain Muslim League support against British rule. | | 1928 | Nehru Report & Jinnah’s 14 Points | Nehru Report rejected separate electorates; Jinnah responded with 14 Points demanding safeguards. | | 1932 | Communal Award | Ramsay MacDonald extended separate electorates to Depressed Classes, led to the Poona Pact. | | 1940 | Lahore Resolution | Muslim League officially demanded separate sovereign states for Muslims (Two-Nation Theory). | | 1946 | Direct Action Day | Called by Muslim League on August 16, 1946, triggering severe communal violence in Kolkata and Noakhali. |

Evolution of Major Political Standpoints

Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan initially advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, describing both communities as the two eyes of a bride.
• Later, he advised Muslims to stay away from the Indian National Congress, fearing Hindu majority rule in democratic institutions.
• He established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 to advance modern western education among Muslims.

The Lucknow Pact of 1916

• The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League signed an agreement in Lucknow to present joint political demands to the British.
• Congress officially accepted separate electorates for Muslims in provincial legislatures.
• While it brought short-term political unity, critics argue it legitimized communal politics on a national platform.

The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi linked the Khilafat cause with the Non-Cooperation Movement to unite Hindus and Muslims against colonial rule.
• The collapse of the movement was followed by communal riots across India, including the Moplah Rebellion in Kerala in 1921.

Key Exam Facts

• First Separate Electorate: The Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) officially granted separate electorates to Muslims.
• Three Stages Model: Historian Bipan Chandra formulated the three-stage theory of communalism in modern India.
• First President of Muslim League: Aga Khan was chosen as the first permanent president of the All India Muslim League in 1906.
• Foundation of Hindu Mahasabha: Formed in 1915 at Haridwar during the Kumbh Mela by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and others.
• Fourteen Points of Jinnah: Presented in 1929 as a counter-proposal to the Nehru Report of 1928.
• Direct Action Day: Observed on August 16, 1946, leading to the Great Calcutta Killings.
• Boundary Commissions: Sir Cyril Radcliffe headed the two Boundary Commissions appointed in 1947 to demarcate borders in Punjab and Bengal.