Which of the above is/are associated with train protection and control systems? Answer:
1, 2, and 3
Notes:
Kavach is an indigenously designed Automatic Train Protection System aimed at enhancing railway safety through real-time monitoring and control.
MComm is a radio communication backbone developed for Kavach, allowing loco-to-loco communication without reliance on outdated mobile technologies.
ETCS (European Train Control System) is an international standard for train control that enhances safety and capacity by allowing trains to operate at higher speeds with improved signaling.
All three systems focus on improving the safety and efficiency of train operations through advanced technology and communication methods.