Stages in the Development of Indian Anthropology

The evolution of Indian anthropology is generally divided into several chronological phases. These phases reflect the shift from colonial data collection to specialized academic research and the current focus on applied and development-oriented studies.

Formative Stage (1774–1919)

This stage began with the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal by Sir William Jones in 1774. During this period, the focus was on gathering ethnographic data to help the British administration manage the diverse population of India.

Key Developments

• Early researchers were primarily British colonial administrators, missionaries, and travelers.
• The primary goal was the creation of administrative manuals, gazetteers, and tribal studies.
• Sir H.H. Risley conducted the first major ethnographic survey, emphasizing the classification of Indian populations based on racial and physical characteristics.
• This period produced foundational ethnographic works such as Castes and Tribes of Southern India by Edgar Thurston and The Tribes and Castes of Bengal by Risley.

Constructive Stage (1920–1949)

Anthropology emerged as a formal academic discipline in Indian universities during this phase. Calcutta University became the first to establish a separate department of anthropology in 1920.

Key Developments

• The focus shifted from administrative data collection to academic teaching and research.
• Prominent Indian scholars began to take the lead, moving away from colonial-biased interpretations.
• A.K. Iyer, L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, and S.C. Roy were key figures who brought professional rigor to the field.
• Fieldwork based on the professional standards of the time became mandatory for research.
• The Anthropological Survey of India was established in 1945, providing a central institution for national-level research.

Analytical Stage (1950–1970)

Following independence, anthropology in India entered a phase of intensive analysis and theoretical sophistication. Research expanded beyond tribal studies to include rural and urban communities.

Key Developments

• The influence of Western theoretical frameworks like structural-functionalism and cultural ecology became prominent.
• M.N. Srinivas introduced crucial concepts such as Sanskritization, Westernization, and Dominant Caste, which reshaped the study of Indian social structure.
• D.N. Majumdar conducted significant research on social and physical anthropology.
• S.C. Dube studied rural society, focusing on community development and the impact of modernization on traditional village structures.
• Research themes diversified into caste dynamics, kinship, religion, and social change in a post-colonial context.

Evaluation Stage (1970–Present)

In this stage, anthropology became more critical, specialized, and applied. The discipline now emphasizes the role of anthropology in policy-making, development, and social advocacy.

Key Developments

• There is an increased focus on marginalized groups, gender studies, and environmental issues.
• Applied anthropology is widely used in the planning of development projects for tribal and rural populations.
• Research has branched into specialized fields like medical anthropology, forensic anthropology, and visual anthropology.
• The discipline now engages with postmodern and post-colonial critiques, addressing the historical biases present in early ethnographic literature.

Comparative Summary of Stages

Key Scholars and Their Contributions

• S.C. Roy: Known as the Father of Indian Anthropology, his work among the Munda and Oraon tribes is legendary.
• L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer: A pioneer who conducted early systematic surveys in South India.
• B.S. Guha: Renowned for his work in physical anthropology and the racial classification of the Indian population.
• N.K. Bose: A multi-disciplinary scholar who contributed to tribal studies, Gandhian sociology, and geography.
• Irawati Karve: Famous for her work on kinship and her study of the social organization of Maharashtra.
• M.N. Srinivas: His work on caste and religion provided the analytical tools to understand the complexity of the Indian social system.

Facts on the Evolution of the Field

• The first anthropology journal in India, Man in India, was started by S.C. Roy in 1921.
• Calcutta University is often called the nursery of Indian anthropology because it produced the first generation of trained Indian anthropologists.
• The Indian Anthropological Society was founded in 1967 to further promote research and interaction among scholars. Early colonial ethnography often relied on the concept of race to justify social hierarchies, a perspective that Indian anthropologists systematically dismantled in the post-independence era.
• Village studies became a dominant research method in the 1950s, largely encouraged by international funding and the state’s interest in rural development planning.
• Many contemporary tribal studies in India are directly linked to constitutional provisions that require specialized knowledge for the administration of Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas.

Physical anthropology in India has increasingly integrated genetics and health research, moving beyond simple craniometry. Forensic anthropology has grown as a specialized offshoot, assisting law enforcement agencies in identification and crime investigation. Today, the discipline is characterized by a mix of traditional ethnographic fieldwork and modern digital and policy-based analysis.