Module 02. Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation, was one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, flourishing along the Indus River and its tributaries between approximately 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. It represented a high point of prehistoric development in the Indian subcontinent, noted for its remarkable town planning, architecture, craftsmanship, and trade. The civilisation covered an extensive area of about 1.3 million square kilometres, encompassing parts of modern-day Pakistan, north-western India, and eastern Afghanistan.

Discovery and Extent

The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation was a milestone in Indian archaeology. The first site, Harappa, was excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, followed by Mohenjo-Daro, excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. Subsequent discoveries of sites such as Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), and Dholavira (Kutch) expanded the known extent of the civilisation. The IVC stretched from Manda in Jammu to Daimabad in Maharashtra and from the Makran coast to Meerut in the east, indicating its vast territorial reach.

Phases of Development

Archaeologists generally divide the Indus Valley Civilisation into three chronological phases:

1. Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE): Characterised by the emergence of agricultural villages, fortified settlements, and early trade networks.
2. Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE): The peak of urbanisation with well-planned cities, sophisticated drainage systems, and extensive trade.
3. Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE): A period of gradual decline marked by regional diversification and ruralisation.

Urban Planning and Architecture

One of the most distinguishing features of the IVC was its advanced urban planning. Cities were laid out on a grid pattern with streets intersecting at right angles. Each city was divided into two main parts:

• The Citadel, built on a raised platform, housed important public structures, granaries, and possibly administrative buildings.
• The Lower Town, located below, consisted of residential quarters for common people.

At Mohenjo-Daro, the Great Bath — a large, watertight tank surrounded by corridors — reflects advanced engineering and possibly ritualistic practices. Houses were constructed of baked bricks and were equipped with private wells, bathrooms, and drainage systems, indicating concern for sanitation and hygiene.

Economy and Trade

The economy of the Indus Valley Civilisation was primarily agrarian, supplemented by trade and craft production.

• Agriculture: The Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas, and sesame, with evidence of rice and cotton cultivation at certain sites. They practised irrigation using canal systems and seasonal flooding.
• Trade: Internal and external trade was highly developed. The discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamia and references to Meluhha in Sumerian texts confirm long-distance commerce. Lothal served as an important port city, linking maritime trade routes to the Arabian Gulf.
• Crafts: Harappans excelled in metallurgy, bead-making, pottery, and seal-carving. Materials such as gold, silver, copper, and semi-precious stones were used to create ornaments and artefacts.

Writing and Script

The Harappans used a pictographic script, consisting of symbols engraved on seals, pottery, and copper tablets. Despite numerous attempts, the script remains undeciphered, leaving many aspects of Harappan language and administration unknown. The brevity of inscriptions and absence of bilingual texts have hindered definitive interpretation, although it is widely accepted that the script was written from right to left.

Religion and Social Life

Religious practices in the Indus Valley Civilisation were likely nature-based and symbolic. Archaeological evidence provides insights into their beliefs:

• The Mother Goddess figurines indicate fertility worship.
• Seals depicting a horned deity surrounded by animals resemble the later Proto-Shiva (Pashupati) image.
• Sacred symbols such as the swastika and tree motifs (especially the peepal) suggest veneration of natural elements.
• Animal worship, particularly of bulls and unicorns, was also prevalent.

Social life was marked by uniformity and discipline. The standardisation of weights, measures, and brick sizes points to a regulated economy and centralised administration. The absence of monumental temples or palaces implies that political power was possibly distributed among various local authorities rather than concentrated in a single ruler.

Art and Craftsmanship

Harappan art reflected a high degree of aesthetic sensibility and technical proficiency.

• Sculpture: The famous bronze figure of the ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohenjo-Daro and the bearded priest statue from Harappa demonstrate mastery of bronze casting and stone carving.
• Pottery: Harappan pottery was typically wheel-made and decorated with geometric and floral motifs.
• Seals: Over 2,000 seals made of steatite have been discovered, often depicting animals and inscriptions. These seals likely served administrative and commercial purposes.
• Ornaments and Tools: Jewellery made from gold, silver, and semi-precious stones was worn by both men and women, indicating a society that valued adornment and craftsmanship.

Decline of the Civilisation

The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1900 BCE remains a subject of scholarly debate. Multiple theories have been proposed:

• Environmental factors, such as the drying up of the Saraswati River and shifts in monsoon patterns, likely affected agriculture.
• Floods or earthquakes may have disrupted urban centres.
• Decline in trade and resource depletion might have weakened the economic structure.
• Some theories also suggest invasion or migration by Indo-Aryan groups, though evidence remains inconclusive.

Ultimately, the urban centres were abandoned, and populations dispersed into smaller rural communities, leading to the emergence of regional cultures like the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware phases.

Legacy and Significance

The Indus Valley Civilisation holds immense significance as a foundation of South Asian history. Its achievements in urban planning, architecture, sanitation, and social organisation influenced later civilisations in the region. The uniformity and order evident in Harappan life illustrate a sophisticated administrative system that functioned without monumental authority.