Module 15. The Mughal Empire (1526–1707)

The Mughal Empire, one of the greatest imperial powers in Indian history, spanned nearly two centuries from its foundation by Babur in 1526 to the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. It represented a unique synthesis of Central Asian, Persian, and Indian traditions, resulting in a rich cultural, political, and administrative legacy. The Mughals established one of the most powerful and enduring empires of the early modern world, shaping the subcontinent’s socio-political and cultural fabric for generations.

Foundation and Early Consolidation (1526–1556)

The Mughal Empire was founded by Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, a Timurid prince from Central Asia. Descended from Timur on his father’s side and Genghis Khan on his mother’s, Babur possessed both military acumen and political ambition.
1. The First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur’s victory over Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, in the First Battle of Panipat marked the beginning of Mughal rule in India. The battle introduced new military technologies, notably the use of gunpowder artillery and field tactics that outmatched traditional cavalry warfare.
2. Expansion and Challenges: After consolidating power in Delhi and Agra, Babur faced the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar, defeating them at the Battle of Khanwa (1527). He further subdued Afghan chiefs at Chanderi (1528) and Ghaghra (1529). Despite his success, Babur’s rule remained confined largely to northern India.
3. Humayun (1530–1556): Babur’s son, Humayun, struggled to retain the fragile empire. His reign was marked by internal instability and Afghan resurgence under Sher Shah Suri, who expelled Humayun after the Battle of Kanauj (1540). Humayun regained the throne briefly in 1555 with Persian assistance but died soon after.
4. The Sur Interregnum (1540–1555): During Humayun’s exile, Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) established the Suri Empire, introducing significant administrative reforms. His innovations—standardisation of revenue assessment, improvement of road networks (notably the Grand Trunk Road), and an efficient postal system—laid the foundation for Mughal governance under Akbar.

Akbar and the Age of Consolidation (1556–1605)

Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, Humayun’s son, ascended the throne at the age of thirteen and reigned for nearly fifty years, transforming the Mughal state into a vast, centralised empire.
1. Expansion and Political Integration: Akbar, guided by his regent Bairam Khan in his early years, began consolidating Mughal authority after defeating Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556). His subsequent conquests included Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1576), Rajasthan, and parts of Deccan. Through a blend of diplomacy and military power, he integrated diverse regional powers into the imperial fold.
2. Administrative Reforms: Akbar’s administration was organised into a systematic bureaucracy. His Mansabdari system classified officials by rank and military responsibility, creating a loyal and efficient cadre of officers. The Zabt revenue system, implemented under Raja Todar Mal, standardised land revenue assessment based on measurement and productivity.
3. Religious and Cultural Policy: Akbar’s religious tolerance and intellectual curiosity culminated in his policy of Sulh-i Kul (universal peace). He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and sought interfaith dialogue through the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri. His experiment with Din-i Ilahi, an eclectic spiritual doctrine, symbolised his syncretic vision, though it found limited acceptance.
4. Art and Architecture: Akbar’s era witnessed the development of Indo-Persian culture, visible in architecture, painting, and literature. The capital at Fatehpur Sikri exemplifies Mughal architectural innovation, blending Islamic, Hindu, and Persian motifs.

Jahangir and the Consolidation of Mughal Culture (1605–1627)

Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir, Akbar’s son, maintained the empire’s stability but faced internal revolts and external challenges.
1. Administration and Policy: Jahangir continued Akbar’s policies of tolerance and efficient administration. His reign was marked by refinement in court culture, the flowering of Mughal painting, and increasing European presence through the East India Companies.
2. Nur Jahan’s Influence: Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, exercised immense political influence, issuing royal orders and controlling court appointments. The couple’s patronage of art and architecture enriched Mughal aesthetics.
3. Rebellions and Foreign Relations: Jahangir faced revolts from Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) and conflicts with the Afghan and Rajput nobles. Relations with the Safavids of Persia and the English and Portuguese traders marked growing Mughal engagement with global powers.

Shah Jahan and the Zenith of Mughal Power (1628–1658)

Under Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire reached the height of its territorial and cultural grandeur.
1. Expansion and Administration: Shah Jahan extended the empire to its largest extent, annexing territories in the Deccan and reorganising the administrative apparatus. His reign was marked by political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural sophistication.
2. Architectural Achievements: Shah Jahan’s era is synonymous with the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture. His masterpieces include the Taj Mahal (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), and Jama Masjid, which symbolise aesthetic refinement and imperial majesty.
3. Decline of Prosperity: Despite splendour, increasing expenditure on wars and monuments strained the imperial treasury. His rule also saw a growing rigidity in religious policy, foreshadowing the conflicts of the next reign.

Aurangzeb and the Empire’s Decline (1658–1707)

Abul Muzaffar Aurangzeb Alamgir, Shah Jahan’s son, ruled for nearly fifty years, overseeing both the empire’s greatest territorial expansion and its internal fragmentation.
1. Expansion and Administration: Aurangzeb extended Mughal authority to the southernmost regions, annexing Bijapur and Golconda. The empire stretched from Kabul to Tanjore, but such vastness proved difficult to manage. His strict adherence to Islamic orthodoxy marked a departure from Akbar’s pluralist vision.
2. Religious and Political Challenges: Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya, destroyed certain temples, and enforced Sharia-based governance, which alienated sections of his subjects. He faced continuous resistance from the Marathas under Shivaji, Sikhs under Guru Gobind Singh, Jats, and Rajputs, leading to prolonged warfare that drained imperial resources.
3. Economic and Administrative Strain: Long campaigns in the Deccan exhausted the treasury, while the Mansabdari system began to decay due to corruption and hereditary entrenchment. Trade continued, but local revolts disrupted stability.
4. Cultural Developments: Despite his orthodox image, Aurangzeb’s period saw continued literary and artistic activity, though at a reduced pace. Persian remained the court language, and regional art forms began to assert independence.

Society, Economy, and Culture under the Mughals

1. Social Structure: Mughal society was stratified yet dynamic. Nobility, composed of Turani, Irani, Afghani, and Rajput elements, dominated administration. Urban centres such as Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Ahmedabad flourished as commercial and cultural hubs.
2. Economy and Trade: The empire’s economy was largely agrarian, based on the zamindari system, but trade and handicrafts thrived. India exported textiles, indigo, and spices while importing horses, silk, and metals. The silver influx from Europe boosted currency circulation.
3. Art, Literature, and Architecture: The Mughal era witnessed unparalleled artistic achievements. Painting evolved through the Mughal school, combining Persian finesse with Indian themes. Literature flourished in Persian, while vernacular languages like Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali gained ground. Architecture under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan embodied the zenith of Indo-Islamic synthesis.

Legacy and Significance

The Mughal Empire, at its peak, symbolised the unity of a vast and diverse subcontinent under a centralised state. Its legacy lies in the creation of a cosmopolitan culture, administrative efficiency, and architectural splendour. Yet, by 1707, internal contradictions—economic strain, religious intolerance, and regional assertion—had begun eroding imperial cohesion.