Module 26. Religious Reform Movements in Modern India

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in India witnessed a wave of religious and social reform movements that aimed to revitalise traditional faiths while responding to the challenges posed by colonial rule, Western education, and modernity. These movements sought to remove superstitious practices, promote rationalism, and reconcile religion with modern scientific temper. They played a crucial role in shaping modern Indian society, fostering national consciousness, and encouraging social reforms such as the abolition of caste discrimination, child marriage, and sati.

Background and Context

The advent of British colonialism brought profound socio-economic and cultural changes to India. The introduction of Western education, Christian missionary activities, and the spread of rational and scientific ideas exposed the rigidity and inequalities in Indian society. Practices such as sati, female infanticide, untouchability, and child marriage came under severe criticism. Educated Indians, influenced by both traditional philosophies and Western liberal ideas, initiated reform movements to reinterpret their religions in the light of modernity.
The reform era also coincided with the Indian Renaissance, a period marked by intellectual awakening and social regeneration. Thinkers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Dayananda Saraswati, and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became leading figures in this revival, striving to reconcile India’s spiritual heritage with the demands of a changing world.

Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy

The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, was one of the earliest reformist movements in modern India. It sought to purify Hinduism by eliminating idol worship, caste divisions, and ritualistic practices. Influenced by monotheistic ideas and rationalism, Roy emphasised the worship of one God and rejected polytheism and priestly dominance.
Roy’s social reforms were far-reaching. He campaigned vigorously against sati, which was officially abolished in 1829, and worked for women’s education and widow remarriage. The Brahmo Samaj later evolved under Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen, who broadened its scope by incorporating ethical and spiritual universalism. The movement’s emphasis on monotheism, rationality, and moral conduct influenced subsequent reformist organisations across India.

Arya Samaj and Swami Dayananda Saraswati

Founded in 1875 by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the Arya Samaj represented another major Hindu reform movement. It aimed to revive the authority of the Vedas and purify Hinduism by discarding practices like idol worship, child marriage, and untouchability. The movement’s motto, “Back to the Vedas,” reflected its emphasis on returning to the original purity of Hindu faith.
Dayananda’s reinterpretation of the Vedas inspired social activism and education. The Arya Samaj established numerous Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools and colleges, promoting modern scientific education blended with Vedic teachings. The movement also worked for women’s empowerment, widow remarriage, and nationalistic awakening, influencing leaders of the Indian freedom struggle.

The Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda

The Ramakrishna Mission, founded in 1897 by Swami Vivekananda in honour of his guru Sri Ramakrishna Paramhansa, sought to combine spirituality with social service. Vivekananda propagated the idea of practical Vedanta, emphasising that service to humanity was equivalent to service to God.
The mission focused on education, healthcare, disaster relief, and rural development, embodying the principle of “work is worship.” Vivekananda’s speeches at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago (1893) projected India’s spiritual heritage to the world and fostered a sense of pride and unity among Indians. His message of universal brotherhood and self-reliance significantly influenced the national movement and modern Indian thought.

The Aligarh Movement and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

The Aligarh Movement, initiated by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in the latter half of the nineteenth century, aimed to modernise the Muslim community in India. Khan founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 (which later became Aligarh Muslim University) to impart Western education alongside Islamic principles.
Sir Syed advocated for rational interpretation of the Quran, rejected rigid orthodoxy, and encouraged Muslims to adopt modern science and technology. His efforts helped bridge the gap between traditional Islamic education and Western learning, paving the way for social and political awakening among Indian Muslims.

The Singh Sabha and Sikh Reform Movements

The Singh Sabha Movement, launched in Punjab in 1873, aimed to restore the purity of Sikhism and counter the influence of Christian missionaries and Hindu reformers. It sought to promote Sikh education, Punjabi language, and distinct religious identity. The movement led to the establishment of the Chief Khalsa Diwan and inspired the Gurdwara Reform Movement of the early twentieth century, which brought Sikh shrines under community management.

The Theosophical Society and Annie Besant

The Theosophical Society, established in India in 1879 by Madame H. P. Blavatsky and Colonel H. S. Olcott, gained prominence under Annie Besant. It encouraged the study of ancient Indian religions, philosophy, and spiritualism. The Society promoted universal brotherhood and sought to bridge Eastern and Western spiritual thought. Annie Besant later became active in Indian politics, supporting Home Rule and national education.

Other Reform Movements

• Prarthana Samaj (1867): Founded by Atmaram Pandurang and influenced by the Brahmo Samaj, it sought to promote monotheism, female education, and social equality.
• Young Bengal Movement: Initiated by Henry Derozio, it emphasised rationalism, free thought, and critique of religious orthodoxy among the youth of Bengal.
• Ahmadiyya Movement (1889): Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in Punjab, it aimed to reinterpret Islam rationally and promote peaceful coexistence.
• Dev Samaj, Satyashodhak Samaj, and Parmahansa Mandali: These movements worked for social equality, especially for lower castes and women, and sought to challenge Brahmanical dominance.

Impact and Significance

The religious reform movements of modern India contributed immensely to social regeneration and national awakening.