Module 27. Post Independence India – Key events and Issues

The independence of India in 1947 marked the beginning of a new era in the subcontinent’s history. The end of British colonial rule brought both hope and immense challenges, as the country embarked on the complex task of nation-building. The newly formed Republic of India had to address issues of political integration, economic development, social reform, and the establishment of democratic institutions, while coping with the trauma of Partition and the creation of Pakistan. The following sections examine the major events, policies, and challenges that shaped post-independence India.

The Aftermath of Partition and Integration of Princely States

The Partition of British India in 1947 led to the creation of two dominions, India and Pakistan. It resulted in one of the largest human migrations in history, with an estimated 10–12 million people crossing borders and nearly a million lives lost in communal violence. The newly independent Indian government, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, faced the dual challenge of rehabilitating refugees and maintaining internal order.
At the time of independence, more than 560 princely states existed, which were not directly governed by the British. Through the efforts of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon, most of these states were integrated into the Indian Union by diplomacy or, in rare cases, by force (as in Hyderabad and Junagadh). This process ensured the political unity of the nation and laid the foundation for a federal structure.

Adoption of the Constitution and the Establishment of a Democratic Republic

One of the earliest milestones of independent India was the drafting of the Constitution of India. The Constituent Assembly, chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad and with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as Chairman of the Drafting Committee, adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949, and it came into effect on 26 January 1950, marking India’s transition into a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.
The Constitution provided a parliamentary system of government, universal adult franchise, fundamental rights, and directive principles of state policy. It was a comprehensive framework that aimed to uphold liberty, equality, and justice. The integration of diverse linguistic, cultural, and regional identities into a unified democratic system was a remarkable achievement in the post-colonial world.

Economic Planning and Development

At independence, India inherited a stagnant colonial economy marked by poverty, illiteracy, and underdeveloped industry. To address this, the government adopted a model of planned economic development, inspired by socialist ideals. The Planning Commission was established in 1950 to formulate Five-Year Plans.

• First Five-Year Plan (1951–56): Focused on agricultural growth and rural development.
• Second Plan (1956–61): Based on the Mahalanobis model, it emphasised industrialisation, particularly heavy industries and public sector enterprises.
• Third Plan (1961–66): Aimed at self-sufficiency in food grains but was disrupted by wars and droughts.

Subsequent plans continued to focus on industrial expansion, green revolution strategies, and poverty alleviation. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, led by scientists such as M. S. Swaminathan, significantly increased agricultural productivity, particularly in Punjab and Haryana, transforming India into a food-surplus nation.

Political Consolidation and Major Events

The post-independence period was marked by significant political developments that shaped India’s democracy.

• Nehruvian Era (1947–64): Focused on secularism, non-alignment, and scientific temper.
• Indira Gandhi’s Leadership (1966–84): Characterised by the Green Revolution, nationalisation of banks (1969), and the controversial Emergency (1975–77) when democratic rights were curtailed.
• Post-Emergency and Coalition Politics: The 1977 election brought the Janata Party to power, signalling the strength of India’s democratic spirit. The 1980s saw political instability and the rise of regional parties.

The assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984, followed by anti-Sikh riots, deeply affected national unity. Later, Rajiv Gandhi’s tenure (1984–89) introduced modernisation and computerisation initiatives but was marred by the Bofors scandal.

Foreign Policy and Non-Alignment

India’s foreign policy, guided by Nehru, was based on non-alignment, maintaining independence from both the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. India played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) alongside nations like Egypt and Yugoslavia.
The country also faced major external conflicts:

• Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1947–48, 1965, and 1971 (the last leading to the creation of Bangladesh).
• The Sino-Indian War of 1962, which exposed weaknesses in India’s defence preparedness.

Despite these, India remained committed to peaceful coexistence and later pursued nuclear self-reliance, culminating in Pokhran nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998.

Social Reform and Challenges

Independent India undertook major social reforms aimed at eradicating caste discrimination, promoting education, and ensuring gender equality. The Hindu Code Bills (1950s) reformed personal laws concerning marriage, inheritance, and succession. Efforts were made to uplift Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes through affirmative action.
The Right to Education Act (2009) and other social welfare programmes have aimed to address long-term inequalities. However, issues such as communalism, caste-based politics, regional disparities, and religious intolerance have continued to pose challenges to social harmony.

Economic Liberalisation and Global Integration

By the late 1980s, India faced a severe economic crisis marked by fiscal deficit and balance of payment problems. Under Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, India launched a series of economic reforms in 1991, which liberalised trade, reduced state control, and encouraged private enterprise and foreign investment.
The reforms ushered in a new era of economic growth, technological advancement, and global integration. The rise of the IT and service sectors, particularly in Bengaluru and Hyderabad, positioned India as a global technology hub. However, economic inequality and rural poverty remained major concerns.

Contemporary Issues and Challenges

In recent decades, India has faced a complex mix of opportunities and challenges.Key issues include:

• Population growth and urbanisation.
• Environmental degradation and climate change.
• Regional insurgencies in areas such as Jammu & Kashmir and the North-East.
• Corruption and the need for governance reforms.
• Communal and caste-based politics undermining national unity.

Meanwhile, India has emerged as one of the world’s largest democracies, with a vibrant civil society, independent judiciary, and active media. Its growing influence in international forums such as the G20, United Nations, and BRICS reflects its increasing global stature.