Module 25. Peasant and Tribal Revolts

Throughout the period of British rule in India, widespread peasant and tribal uprisings occurred as expressions of resistance to colonial exploitation and social oppression. These revolts reflected the discontent of India’s rural and tribal masses, who suffered under oppressive revenue systems, alien land laws, loss of traditional rights, and economic distress. Although most of these revolts were localised and spontaneous, they formed the foundation for later organised movements against colonial rule.

Causes of Peasant and Tribal Uprisings

The peasant and tribal revolts were primarily driven by the profound disruptions caused by British colonialism:

• Exploitative Land Revenue Systems: The Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems imposed high taxes and favoured landlords or moneylenders over cultivators.
• Loss of Traditional Rights: British policies destroyed customary land ownership and forest-based livelihoods, depriving tribal communities of their means of survival.
• Economic Hardship: Excessive taxation, forced cultivation of cash crops like indigo, and recurring famines impoverished the rural population.
• Interference with Social and Religious Customs: Missionary activities, imposition of foreign laws, and disregard for tribal traditions provoked resentment.
• Political and Administrative Corruption: British officials, zamindars, and revenue agents often exploited peasants, while the colonial state remained indifferent to their grievances.

These conditions created a fertile ground for rebellion, as peasants and tribes rose repeatedly against both British authority and their local oppressors.

Early Peasant Uprisings

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries witnessed numerous peasant uprisings across British India.

1. Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellions (1763–1800)Occurring in Bengal after the famine of 1770, these revolts were led by ascetics, peasants, and dispossessed landlords protesting against high taxation and Company rule. They attacked British factories and officials, symbolising early anti-colonial resistance.
2. Pagal Panthis (1825–35)Originating in north-eastern Bengal, the movement was led by Karam Shah and Tipu Shah, who mobilised peasants and tribal groups against oppressive zamindars and colonial authorities.
3. Faraizi Movement (1830–57)Initiated by Haji Shariatullah and later led by Dudu Miyan, this Islamic reform movement among East Bengal peasants sought religious purification and opposed landlord oppression and British revenue collection.
4. Indigo Revolt (1859–60)Perhaps the most significant peasant uprising before 1857, it took place in Bengal against the exploitation by European indigo planters who forced peasants to grow indigo under oppressive terms. The revolt spread rapidly, supported by local zamindars and the intelligentsia, and led to the appointment of the Indigo Commission (1860), which acknowledged planter abuses.
5. Pabna Uprising (1873–76)The peasants of Pabna district (Bengal), led by local leaders, resisted illegal rent enhancement and forced labour by zamindars. Their non-violent and organised resistance led to legal reforms protecting tenant rights under the Bengal Tenancy Act (1885).
6. Deccan Riots (1875)In western Maharashtra, impoverished ryots, burdened by debt and exploitation by moneylenders (sahukars), revolted by attacking their houses and burning debt records. The uprising forced the government to pass the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act (1879).
7. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the peasants of Champaran in Bihar protested against the tinkathia system, which compelled them to grow indigo on part of their land. This movement marked Gandhi’s first major political success in India and demonstrated the potential of non-violent resistance.
8. Kisan Sabha and Eka Movements (1920–22)The United Provinces Kisan Sabha, influenced by the Non-Cooperation Movement, organised peasants against high rents and unpaid labour. The Eka Movement, led by Madari Pasi, demanded land reforms and tenant rights.
9. Tebhaga Movement (1946–47)In Bengal, sharecroppers demanded a larger share of the produce (two-thirds) instead of the prevailing one-half. Supported by the Communist Party of India, the movement reflected the growing class consciousness among peasants in the final years of colonial rule.

Major Tribal Revolts

Tribal communities were among the earliest and most persistent groups to resist British rule. Their uprisings were reactions to the loss of land, forest rights, and autonomy under colonial administration.

1. Chuar Rebellion (1767–1809)The Chuars of Midnapore and Bankura districts (Bengal) revolted repeatedly against revenue demands and loss of land. Their rebellion, led by local chiefs, reflected resentment against British agrarian policies.
2. Kol Uprising (1831–32)The Kols of Chotanagpur (present-day Jharkhand) rebelled against the exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, and British officials who encroached upon their land. The British suppressed the revolt with brutal force.
3. Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)One of the most significant tribal uprisings, it was led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu in the Rajmahal Hills. The Santhals rose against oppressive landlords, moneylenders, and British revenue officers. The rebellion was crushed, but it led to the creation of a separate administrative district—Santhal Parganas—in 1856.
4. Khond Rebellions (1840s–1860s)The Khonds of Odisha and central India resisted British interference in their tribal customs and their forced recruitment as labourers. Their resistance continued intermittently for decades.
5. Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan, 1899–1900)Led by Birsa Munda, the Mundas of Chotanagpur launched a massive revolt against the encroachment of British landlords (dikus) and missionaries. The movement combined religious reform with political resistance, demanding a return to their traditional system known as Khuntkatti. Birsa’s martyrdom turned him into a revered folk hero, and the uprising led to later tenancy reforms.
6. Bhil Rebellions (1818–1858)The Bhils of western India rose repeatedly against British officials and local chiefs. Their discontent stemmed from the disruption of their forest-based economy and harsh taxation.
7. Koya and Rampa Rebellions (1879–1924)The Koyas and other tribes of the Godavari region (Andhra Pradesh) resisted British forest regulations and police excesses. Leaders such as Alluri Sitarama Raju (Rampa Rebellion, 1922–24) organised guerrilla warfare, drawing inspiration from nationalist ideals.
8. Tana Bhagat Movement (1914–20s)Among the Oraons of Chotanagpur, this movement, influenced by Gandhian principles, combined tribal reform, anti-missionary sentiment, and resistance to British rule.

Common Features of the Revolts

Despite regional variations, most peasant and tribal revolts shared certain features:

• They arose due to economic exploitation and loss of land.
• Leadership often came from local chiefs, religious figures, or charismatic peasants.
• The rebels sought to restore traditional rights rather than overthrow British rule outright in the early stages.
• Many uprisings were spontaneous and localised, lacking coordination and modern political consciousness.
• Brutal British suppression, often involving mass executions and destruction of villages, was a recurring feature.

Impact and Legacy

Although most revolts failed militarily, they revealed the deep-rooted discontent among India’s rural and tribal masses. The British government, alarmed by the frequency of these uprisings, implemented certain reforms:

• Tenancy laws to protect peasants from eviction.
• Land settlement adjustments to reduce exploitation.
• Forest and tribal policies to regulate administration in tribal areas (though often still exploitative).

The cumulative effect of these movements was significant. They preserved the spirit of resistance and inspired later nationalist and agrarian movements. The struggles of peasants and tribes were later integrated into the broader Indian freedom movement under leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru, who recognised the importance of agrarian grievances.