Module 120. International Organizations, Treaties and Conventions

International organisations, treaties, and conventions form the backbone of global governance, facilitating cooperation, peace, and sustainable development among nations. They provide structured mechanisms for dialogue, conflict resolution, trade regulation, human rights protection, and environmental preservation. Through these institutions and agreements, countries work collectively to address global challenges that transcend national borders — such as climate change, pandemics, economic inequality, and security threats.

Evolution and Role of International Organisations

The concept of international cooperation dates back to ancient alliances and diplomatic practices, but modern international organisations emerged after the two World Wars as nations sought to prevent conflict and promote global welfare.
The League of Nations was established in 1920 following the First World War to maintain peace through collective security and diplomacy. Despite its eventual failure to prevent World War II, it laid the foundation for future multilateral institutions.
After 1945, the United Nations (UN) replaced the League, becoming the most influential global organisation, committed to maintaining international peace, promoting human rights, and fostering social and economic development.
International organisations operate at various levels:

• Global organisations – with worldwide membership, e.g., the United Nations, World Trade Organization (WTO), and International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• Regional organisations – focusing on specific geographical areas, e.g., the European Union (EU), African Union (AU), and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
• Specialised agencies and institutions – addressing sector-specific issues such as health, culture, labour, and education.

Their roles include mediating conflicts, coordinating humanitarian aid, enforcing international law, facilitating trade, and promoting scientific and cultural exchange.

Major International Organisations

1. United Nations (UN): Founded in 1945, the UN is the world’s foremost international organisation, with 193 member states. Its objectives, outlined in the UN Charter, include maintaining peace and security, promoting human rights, and fostering cooperation in solving global problems.
Main Organs of the UN:

• General Assembly: Deliberative body where all members have equal representation.
• Security Council: Responsible for peace and security; includes five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) with veto power.
• Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Coordinates economic, social, and cultural initiatives.
• International Court of Justice (ICJ): Settles legal disputes between states.
• Secretariat: Administrative wing headed by the Secretary-General.

Specialised Agencies:

• World Health Organization (WHO): Oversees global public health.
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): Promotes education, science, and cultural heritage.
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Works to eradicate hunger and improve nutrition.
• International Labour Organization (ILO): Protects labour rights and promotes decent working conditions.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank: Support economic stability and development.

2. World Trade Organization (WTO): Established in 1995, succeeding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO regulates international trade. It promotes free trade, resolves trade disputes, and sets global trade standards.
3. International Monetary Fund (IMF): Founded in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, the IMF ensures financial stability by providing short-term monetary assistance to countries facing balance-of-payment crises.
4. World Bank: Comprising the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA), it provides financial and technical support for development projects in low- and middle-income countries.
5. World Health Organization (WHO): Established in 1948, WHO leads international health initiatives, disease control, and emergency response, exemplified by its role in eradicating smallpox and coordinating global responses to COVID-19.
6. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Founded in 1957, it promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and prevents the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
7. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): Encourages policies that improve economic and social well-being globally through research and policy dialogue.
8. Regional Organisations:

• European Union (EU): A political and economic union of European states promoting regional integration, common currency (euro), and collective governance.
• African Union (AU): Aims for unity, peace, and development across African nations.
• ASEAN: Strengthens political, economic, and cultural cooperation among Southeast Asian countries.
• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): Promotes regional collaboration in South Asia.
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military alliance ensuring collective defence for its members.

International Treaties and Conventions

Treaties and conventions are formal agreements between states governed by international law. They serve as legally binding instruments that regulate relations, establish obligations, and codify norms on a wide range of issues.
1. Peace and Security Treaties:

• Treaty of Versailles (1919): Ended World War I and established the League of Nations.
• Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1968): Prevents the spread of nuclear weapons and promotes disarmament.
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT, 1996): Prohibits all nuclear explosions for military or civilian purposes.
• Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC, 1993): Bans the production and use of chemical weapons.

2. Human Rights Conventions:

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948): Sets out fundamental human rights for all people.
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966) and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966): Together with the UDHR, form the International Bill of Human Rights.
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979): Promotes gender equality.
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989): Protects the welfare and rights of children globally.

3. Environmental and Climate Agreements:

• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Set binding emission reduction targets for developed nations.
• Paris Agreement (2015): Aims to limit global temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
• Montreal Protocol (1987): Phased out substances depleting the ozone layer.
• Convention on Biological Diversity (1992): Promotes conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

4. Trade and Economic Treaties:

• General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947): Established post-war trade liberalisation framework, later succeeded by the WTO.
• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, 1994) and its successor, the US–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA, 2020), enhanced regional trade cooperation.
• Bretton Woods Agreements (1944): Created the IMF and World Bank to stabilise post-war global finance.

5. Cultural and Scientific Conventions:

• UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972): Protects cultural and natural heritage sites of outstanding value.
• Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005): Safeguards cultural diversity in a globalising world.

The Vienna Convention Framework

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) codifies international rules on treaty-making, interpretation, and enforcement. It defines a treaty as “an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law”. This convention ensures that treaties are made with consent, implemented in good faith (pacta sunt servanda), and terminated lawfully.

Challenges and Criticism

While international organisations and treaties have achieved significant progress, they face persistent challenges:

• Inequality of influence: Powerful nations often dominate decision-making in institutions like the UN Security Council or IMF.
• Compliance issues: Some states fail to uphold treaty obligations, weakening enforcement.
• Sovereignty concerns: National interests sometimes clash with global commitments.
• Political manipulation: International interventions can be influenced by geopolitical agendas.

Despite these challenges, multilateral cooperation remains essential in addressing global crises that no single nation can resolve alone.

Contemporary Relevance and Global Impact

International organisations and treaties play critical roles in tackling modern issues such as climate change, terrorism, migration, pandemics, and technological regulation. Collaborative frameworks like the Paris Climate Agreement, World Health Organization’s pandemic coordination, and UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) demonstrate the power of collective action.