Module 71. India’s Forests, Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs

India’s diverse geography and climatic variations have endowed it with a rich array of natural ecosystems. Among these, forests, wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs are vital components of the country’s ecological wealth, playing a crucial role in maintaining environmental balance, supporting biodiversity, and sustaining livelihoods. Together, these ecosystems regulate the climate, conserve soil and water, and act as buffers against natural disasters. Their management and conservation are essential for ecological stability and sustainable development.

Forests of India

Forests cover nearly one-fourth of India’s geographical area and represent a wide variety of vegetation types ranging from tropical rainforests in the Western Ghats to alpine forests in the Himalayas. According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the total forest and tree cover stands at about 24.6% of the country’s area, with a steady increase due to afforestation and conservation initiatives.
Types of ForestsIndia’s forests are classified broadly based on climatic and geographical factors:

• Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests – Found in regions with heavy rainfall such as the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and North-East India. These forests are dense, multi-layered, and rich in biodiversity.
• Tropical Deciduous Forests – The most widespread type, found in central India, the Deccan plateau, and parts of northern plains. They shed leaves seasonally and provide valuable timber.
• Thorn Forests and Scrubs – Found in arid regions like Rajasthan and Gujarat, adapted to low moisture conditions.
• Montane Forests – Present in the Himalayas, varying with altitude from subtropical to alpine vegetation.
• Mangrove Forests – Coastal forests found in the intertidal zones, particularly along the east coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Importance of ForestsForests provide numerous ecological, economic, and social benefits:

• Regulation of climate and rainfall patterns.
• Prevention of soil erosion and maintenance of watershed areas.
• Source of timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
• Habitat for diverse flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Bengal Tiger and Asiatic Elephant.

Major conservation efforts include Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992), and the creation of Protected Areas, encompassing National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The National Forest Policy (1988) aims to maintain one-third of the total land area under forest and tree cover.

Wetlands of India

Wetlands are transitional ecosystems between terrestrial and aquatic environments, including marshes, swamps, lakes, estuaries, and floodplains. They serve as natural water purifiers, carbon sinks, and breeding grounds for numerous aquatic species. India has about 7.7 million hectares of wetlands, constituting nearly 4.6% of its geographical area.
Types of Wetlands

• Inland Wetlands – Rivers, lakes, ponds, and floodplains found throughout the country.
• Coastal Wetlands – Lagoons, estuaries, mangroves, and coral reefs along the coastal regions.
• Man-made Wetlands – Reservoirs, tanks, and aquaculture ponds created for irrigation or domestic use.

Ramsar Sites in IndiaIndia is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention (1971), which aims at the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. As of 2025, India has 82 Ramsar Sites, the largest network in South Asia, covering significant wetlands such as:

• Chilika Lake (Odisha) – Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon and habitat for migratory birds.
• Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) – UNESCO World Heritage Site famous for avian diversity.
• Loktak Lake (Manipur) – Known for its floating ‘phumdis’ and the endangered Sangai deer.
• Sundarbans Wetland (West Bengal) – Shared ecosystem of mangroves and tidal waterways.

Threats and ConservationWetlands face degradation due to urbanisation, agricultural runoff, pollution, and encroachment. Programmes such as the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA) and state-level wetland management authorities focus on restoration and sustainable utilisation.

Mangroves in India

Mangroves are specialised salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical coasts. They form a critical interface between land and sea, offering protection against coastal erosion, storm surges, and tsunamis.
India’s mangroves cover approximately 4,992 sq. km, accounting for about 3% of the world’s total mangrove area. They are mainly distributed along:

• Sundarbans Delta (West Bengal) – The largest mangrove forest in the world and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Dense mangroves with high biodiversity value.
• Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna Deltas (East Coast) – Extensive mangrove stretches supporting fisheries.
• Gulf of Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat) – Western coast mangroves with saline-resistant species.

Ecological Role of Mangroves

• Serve as breeding and nursery grounds for fish and crustaceans.
• Act as carbon sinks, sequestering large amounts of carbon dioxide.
• Protect coastal settlements from cyclones and tidal floods.
• Provide livelihood resources such as honey, fish, and fuelwood.

Conservation MeasuresMangrove areas are protected under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019, and the National Mangrove Conservation Programme under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). Restoration projects and community-based initiatives, especially in the Sundarbans and Gujarat, have contributed to increasing mangrove cover.

Coral Reefs in India

Coral reefs are marine ecosystems formed by colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. They are often termed the “rainforests of the sea” due to their extraordinary biodiversity. India’s coral reefs extend over 5,790 sq. km and are found mainly in:

• Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (Tamil Nadu)
• Lakshadweep Islands
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat)

Importance of Coral Reefs

• Provide habitat for a vast variety of marine species.
• Serve as natural barriers protecting coastal zones from waves and erosion.
• Support fisheries and tourism industries.
• Contribute to global carbon and nutrient cycles.

Threats to Coral Reefs

• Coral bleaching due to rising sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification.
• Destructive fishing practices such as dynamite fishing and coral mining.
• Pollution from coastal development, oil spills, and plastic waste.
• Climate change-induced sea-level rise and cyclone damage.

Conservation and ManagementThe Coral Reef Conservation Programme, initiated by MoEFCC, aims to monitor and restore degraded coral ecosystems. The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (Andaman Islands), and Marine National Park (Gulf of Kachchh) are key protected areas for coral conservation. India also collaborates with global initiatives such as the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) to enhance research and adaptive management strategies.

Ecological and Economic Significance

Forests, wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs collectively underpin India’s environmental health and economic prosperity. They support ecosystem services such as water purification, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and disaster mitigation. These ecosystems also sustain millions of livelihoods through forestry, fisheries, tourism, and agriculture.
In recent years, the government has adopted integrated approaches such as the National Biodiversity Action Plan, Green India Mission, and National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) to safeguard these natural assets. Community participation and scientific management are increasingly recognised as essential to ensuring their long-term resilience.