Module 22. India Under British Crown (1858-1947)

The period from 1858 to 1947 marked the era of direct British Crown rule in India, following the dissolution of the East India Company in the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857. This epoch, known as the British Raj, witnessed profound administrative, economic, political, and social transformations. It was a period of imperial consolidation and nationalist awakening that culminated in India’s independence in 1947.

Establishment of Crown Rule

After the suppression of the Revolt of 1857, the Government of India Act of 1858 formally transferred authority from the East India Company to the British Crown. The office of the Governor-General was redesignated as the Viceroy of India, representing the monarch. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy.
A Secretary of State for India, based in London, was appointed to oversee Indian affairs with the help of a Council of India. This arrangement marked the beginning of a centralised bureaucratic administration directly responsible to the British Parliament. The Act also declared the British monarch as the Emperor or Empress of India, a title first assumed by Queen Victoria in 1876.
A new Proclamation of 1858 assured Indians of non-interference in their religion and customs, equal treatment under law, and inclusion in government service based on merit. However, these promises were largely unfulfilled, as real political power remained firmly in British hands.

Administrative and Political Structure

The British Raj developed a highly centralised system of governance. India was divided into British provinces under governors or lieutenant-governors and princely states ruled by Indian princes under British suzerainty. Roughly two-fifths of the territory remained under native rulers who accepted British paramountcy.
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 reintroduced Indians into the legislative process in a limited advisory capacity. Subsequent Acts of 1892, 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms), and 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms) gradually expanded Indian representation. The Government of India Act of 1935 marked the most significant constitutional reform, proposing provincial autonomy and a federation, although the latter was never implemented.
At the central level, legislative power remained with the Viceroy’s Executive Council, dominated by British officials. Indian participation, though increasing, was largely consultative until the final years of colonial rule.

Development of the Judiciary and Civil Services

The British Crown institutionalised a uniform legal and judicial system across India. The Indian Penal Code (1860), Civil Procedure Code (1859), and Criminal Procedure Code (1861) codified laws that formed the foundation of modern Indian jurisprudence. High Courts were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862, later extended to other provinces.
The Indian Civil Service (ICS) became the elite administrative cadre of the Raj, known for its efficiency and authority. Entry into the ICS was theoretically open to all subjects of the Crown but remained dominated by the British due to examinations being conducted in London and other discriminatory barriers. Indians such as Satyendranath Tagore (1863) and Surendranath Banerjee were among the first to enter the service, inspiring future generations to demand equality in governance.

Economic Policies and Colonial Exploitation

The economic structure of British India was designed primarily to serve imperial interests. The colonial economy was characterised by the drain of wealth, deindustrialisation, and commercialisation of agriculture.
The railways (introduced in 1853), telegraphs, and canal systems expanded under Crown rule, ostensibly as modernising tools but primarily to facilitate the movement of raw materials and troops. India became a supplier of agricultural commodities such as cotton, jute, tea, and indigo, while importing British manufactured goods.
Land revenue systems such as Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari continued under British administration, contributing to rural indebtedness and recurring famines. The catastrophic famines of 1876–78, 1899–1900, and 1943 (Bengal Famine) highlighted the failures of colonial economic policy and indifference towards Indian suffering.
By the early twentieth century, economic nationalism emerged, with leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, R. C. Dutt, and M. G. Ranade criticising British economic exploitation and advocating for Indian industrial growth.

Social and Educational Developments

British rule brought extensive social and educational changes. Missionary activities and government measures encouraged Western education, leading to the rise of a modern, English-educated middle class. The Hunter Commission (1882) and Wood’s Despatch (1854) emphasised the expansion of education, while universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857).
Social reform movements gained momentum during this period. Reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, and M. G. Ranade sought to eliminate social evils like sati, child marriage, and untouchability, and to promote women’s education and widow remarriage.
The emergence of religious and cultural revival movements—such as the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Aligarh Movement, and Theosophical Society—reflected an effort to reconcile traditional values with modernity. The introduction of Western ideals of liberty, equality, and rationalism inspired Indians to question colonial authority.

Rise of Indian Nationalism

The latter half of British Crown rule saw the growth of Indian nationalism. The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 under the initiative of A. O. Hume, initially as a platform for political dialogue. Early Congress leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Pherozeshah Mehta followed a moderate approach, seeking reforms through petitions and constitutional means.
By the early twentieth century, a more assertive nationalist spirit emerged, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, advocating Swaraj (self-rule). The Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon triggered widespread protests and the Swadeshi Movement, marking a turning point in mass political mobilisation.
The Home Rule Movements (1916–17) under Tilak and Annie Besant and the Lucknow Pact (1916) between the Congress and the Muslim League signalled the growing unity among Indians. The aftermath of the First World War, repressive measures such as the Rowlatt Act (1919), and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre intensified anti-British sentiment.
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the central figure in Indian politics from 1919 onwards, introducing non-violent civil disobedience as a means of resistance. Movements such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34), and Quit India Movement (1942) united millions of Indians in the struggle for freedom.
Simultaneously, revolutionary organisations like Anushilan Samiti, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, and leaders such as Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Chandra Shekhar Azad pursued militant methods to challenge British authority.

Constitutional Developments and Transfer of Power

Constitutional reforms continued through the twentieth century as Britain attempted to balance Indian demands with imperial interests. The Simon Commission (1927), boycotted by Indians for its exclusion of Indian members, led to the drafting of the Nehru Report (1928)—the first Indian effort to formulate a constitution.
The Round Table Conferences (1930–32) and the Government of India Act of 1935 granted provincial autonomy and introduced elections, allowing Indian ministers to form governments in several provinces by 1937.
The outbreak of the Second World War (1939) without consulting Indian leaders led to widespread discontent. The Cripps Mission (1942) failed to reach an agreement on Indian self-government, and the Quit India Movement demanded immediate independence.
Following the end of the war, the Labour Government in Britain recognised the inevitability of Indian independence. The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) attempted to frame a federal constitution, but escalating communal tensions led to the Partition of India. On 15 August 1947, British rule ended, creating the independent dominions of India and Pakistan.

Legacy of British Crown Rule

British Crown rule profoundly reshaped India’s political, social, and economic structures. It introduced modern administrative systems, legal codes, transport infrastructure, and Western education, but at the cost of economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and political subjugation.