Module 57. Human Geography of India
India’s human geography represents a complex interplay of population distribution, cultural diversity, social structures, economic activities, and urban–rural dynamics shaped by the country’s vast physical landscape and long historical evolution. As one of the most populous nations in the world, India exhibits remarkable variations in demographic patterns, languages, religions, and settlement forms, all of which profoundly influence its socio-economic fabric.
Population Distribution and Density
India’s population exceeds 1.4 billion, making it the second most populous country after China. The spatial distribution of population is highly uneven, influenced by factors such as climate, topography, soil fertility, and availability of water resources. The Indo-Gangetic Plain, with its fertile alluvial soils and favourable climate, is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, recording densities often exceeding 1,000 persons per square kilometre. In contrast, the Himalayan states, Thar Desert, and parts of the Deccan Plateau exhibit sparse population due to harsh terrain and limited economic opportunities.
Major population concentrations are found in states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Maharashtra, whereas states like Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Sikkim have low densities. Urbanisation has accelerated population growth in metropolitan areas such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, and Chennai, contributing to the rise of urban agglomerations and metropolitan economies.
Demographic Characteristics
India’s population structure reflects both opportunities and challenges. The country has a young age profile, with more than 60 per cent of its people below 35 years of age, offering a potential demographic dividend. However, the dependency ratio remains significant due to the large proportion of children and elderly persons. The sex ratio, as per the 2011 Census, stood at 943 females per 1,000 males, with regional variations reflecting cultural, social, and economic factors. States such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu report favourable ratios, while Haryana and Punjab show lower figures due to gender imbalances.
Literacy rates have improved substantially, rising from 18.3 per cent in 1951 to over 74 per cent in 2011, with notable progress in female literacy. Educational attainment and skill development are key determinants of regional economic variation. Health indicators also vary widely; Kerala, for instance, has life expectancy and infant mortality figures comparable to developed countries, whereas states in central and northern India lag behind.
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity
India’s cultural landscape is characterised by exceptional diversity. The Constitution of India recognises 22 scheduled languages and hundreds of regional dialects. Hindi, spoken by about 44 per cent of the population, serves as the most widely used language, while English functions as an associate official language and a link for interstate and international communication. Major linguistic families include Indo-Aryan (spoken by nearly 75 per cent of Indians) and Dravidian (spoken mainly in the south).
Religious diversity is another hallmark of India’s human geography. The major religions include Hinduism (around 80 per cent), Islam (approximately 14 per cent), Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. This diversity manifests in festivals, architecture, rituals, and daily life, making India a mosaic of traditions and belief systems. The spatial distribution of religious communities often corresponds with historical settlement patterns — for instance, Islam is concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Kerala; Sikhism in Punjab; and Buddhism in Maharashtra and Ladakh.
Rural and Urban Settlements
India remains predominantly rural, with around 65 per cent of its population residing in villages. Rural settlements vary from compact clusters in the northern plains to dispersed hamlets in hilly or arid regions. Agricultural activities dominate the rural economy, though non-farm occupations such as cottage industries and services are increasing. Urbanisation, however, has shown remarkable momentum. According to the 2011 Census, urban dwellers accounted for 31 per cent of the population, and current estimates suggest it has crossed 35 per cent.
Indian cities display a wide range of settlement forms—from ancient cities like Varanasi and Madurai to modern planned capitals such as Chandigarh and New Delhi. The emergence of metropolitan regions, industrial corridors, and technological hubs (e.g., Bengaluru’s IT industry and Pune’s automotive sector) reflects structural transformation and global integration. Nonetheless, issues such as housing shortages, traffic congestion, pollution, and the growth of informal settlements remain pressing challenges.
Economic and Occupational Patterns
India’s economic landscape is marked by regional contrasts shaped by historical development, resource distribution, and industrialisation. Traditionally an agrarian economy, India has seen a shift towards the secondary and tertiary sectors. Agriculture remains the mainstay of rural livelihoods, employing nearly 40 per cent of the workforce. Major crops include rice, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, and cotton, while plantation crops such as tea and coffee thrive in the hilly regions of the south and northeast.
Industrial and service sectors are concentrated in urban and coastal regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka have emerged as industrial powerhouses, whereas Delhi-NCR, Hyderabad, and Bengaluru are known for information technology and business services. Regional disparities persist, with northern and eastern states generally lagging behind in per capita income and infrastructure development.
Migration and Mobility
Migration plays a pivotal role in shaping India’s human geography. Internal migration occurs predominantly from rural to urban areas, driven by employment opportunities, educational prospects, and environmental pressures. States such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha are major out-migration regions, while Maharashtra, Delhi, and Gujarat attract large inflows of workers. Seasonal and circular migration are common among low-income groups engaged in construction, agriculture, and informal sectors.
International migration, particularly to the Gulf countries, has also influenced demographic and economic patterns, especially in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Punjab, where remittances form a significant share of household income.
Social and Regional Inequalities
Socio-economic inequality remains a defining characteristic of India’s human geography. Caste, class, gender, and regional disparities continue to influence access to education, healthcare, and employment. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, constituting about 25 per cent of the population, often experience social and economic disadvantages despite affirmative action policies. The government’s focus on inclusive growth through schemes like MGNREGA, National Rural Health Mission, and Skill India aims to reduce such disparities.
Regional inequality manifests in differing levels of infrastructure, industrialisation, and governance. Western and southern India have achieved higher development indices, while eastern and central regions continue to struggle with poverty and underdevelopment.
Human Development and Regional Planning
India’s approach to regional planning integrates human geography into economic policy. Programmes such as the Aspirational Districts Programme, Smart Cities Mission, and Digital India seek to balance growth and improve quality of life. The Human Development Index (HDI) across Indian states highlights significant variations: Kerala consistently ranks highest, while Bihar and Jharkhand remain at the lower end.