Module 73. Flora and Fauna of India

India possesses one of the richest and most diverse biological heritages in the world. Its vast geographical expanse, varied climatic conditions, and multiple ecosystems—from the snowy Himalayas to tropical rainforests, deserts, and coastal regions—support an extraordinary range of plant and animal life. This biodiversity forms an integral part of India’s natural wealth, cultural identity, and ecological stability.

Overview of India’s Biodiversity

India is classified as a megadiverse country, housing nearly 8% of the world’s recorded species, despite covering only about 2.4% of the Earth’s land area. According to the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), the country hosts approximately 47,000 species of plants and 96,000 species of animals, many of which are endemic.
The Indian subcontinent lies at the intersection of three major biogeographical realms—the Indo-Malayan, Palaearctic, and Afrotropical—which contributes to its exceptional biodiversity. The country’s flora and fauna are distributed across ten biogeographic zones: Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian Desert, Semi-arid, Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau, Gangetic Plain, Coasts, North-east India, and Islands.

Flora of India

India’s flora is immensely varied, encompassing tropical rainforests, temperate forests, alpine vegetation, and arid scrublands. The vegetation patterns are largely influenced by climate, soil, and altitude.
1. Forest Types: Based on climatic and ecological characteristics, the Champion and Seth Classification (1968) categorises Indian forests into six major types and 16 subtypes:

• Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests: Found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and parts of the North-East (Assam, Meghalaya). Dominant species include rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), ebony (Diospyros ebenum), and mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni).
• Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests: Common in central India, Odisha, and the foothills of the Himalayas. Major trees include sal (Shorea robusta), teak (Tectona grandis), and bamboo.
• Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests: Spread across the Deccan Plateau and Northern plains. Notable species are acacia, neem (Azadirachta indica), and palash (Butea monosperma).
• Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs: Found in arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana, dominated by cacti, babool (Acacia nilotica), and kair (Capparis decidua).
• Montane Forests: Covering the Himalayan region, these are divided into temperate broad-leaved forests (oaks, chestnuts) and coniferous forests (pine, cedar, fir).
• Mangrove Forests: Located along coastal regions such as the Sunderbans (West Bengal), Godavari and Krishna deltas, and the Andaman Islands. Dominant species include Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Sonneratia.

2. Endemic and Rare Flora: India is home to nearly 5,000 endemic plant species, especially concentrated in biodiversity hotspots like the Western Ghats and North-East Himalayas. Examples include Cycas beddomei (a rare cycad), Nepenthes khasiana (pitcher plant of Meghalaya), and Ceropegia odorata (endemic to Maharashtra).
3. Medicinal and Economic Plants: India’s traditional systems of medicine—Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani—depend heavily on native flora. Plants such as tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), neem, ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), and turmeric (Curcuma longa) possess therapeutic properties. Economically significant species include bamboo, sandalwood, cotton, and jute.

Fauna of India

The Indian subcontinent supports a wide spectrum of wildlife due to its diverse habitats. The fauna includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and marine species, many of which are globally significant.
1. Mammalian Diversity: India harbours around 400 species of mammals, including several iconic and endangered species:

• Big Mammals: Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), and sloth bear (Melursus ursinus).
• Smaller Mammals: Red panda (Ailurus fulgens), Himalayan tahr, nilgiri langur, and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra).
• Marine Mammals: Dolphins, dugongs, and whales along India’s coastline.

2. Avifauna: India is a paradise for ornithologists, hosting more than 1,200 species of birds, including both resident and migratory species. Important examples include the peacock (Pavo cristatus, the national bird), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), sarus crane, hornbills, flamingos, and Himalayan monal. Bird sanctuaries such as Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Chilika Lake (Odisha) serve as major habitats for migratory birds.
3. Reptiles and Amphibians: India’s reptilian diversity comprises over 500 species, including snakes, lizards, and turtles. The Indian cobra, king cobra, gharial, and star tortoise are well-known species. Amphibians such as tree frogs and caecilians are abundant in the Western Ghats, which is known for high amphibian endemism.
4. Marine and Freshwater Fauna: The coastal waters of India host rich marine biodiversity with corals, fish, crustaceans, and molluscs. The Lakshadweep and Andaman seas are known for coral reefs and diverse marine ecosystems. Rivers such as the Ganga and Brahmaputra support species like the Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica), an endangered aquatic mammal.

Biodiversity Hotspots of India

India has four recognised biodiversity hotspots out of the 36 identified globally, each characterised by high endemism and significant habitat loss:

1. The Himalaya: Includes the Eastern and Western Himalayan ranges, supporting species like snow leopard, Himalayan blue poppy, and rhododendrons.
2. The Indo-Burma Region: Covers North-Eastern states, rich in orchids, bamboos, and rare fauna such as hoolock gibbon.
3. The Western Ghats: Known for unique amphibians, plants, and mammals like lion-tailed macaque and Malabar civet.
4. The Sundaland (including Nicobar Islands): Features tropical rainforests and marine life with many endemic species.

Conservation of Flora and Fauna

Rapid industrialisation, deforestation, urbanisation, and poaching have led to habitat destruction and species decline. To counter these threats, India has adopted a comprehensive framework for biodiversity conservation.
1. Legal and Institutional Framework:

• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Provides for the protection of endangered species and establishment of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.
• Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: Regulates diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes.
• Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Ensures conservation of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits.

2. Protected Area Network: India has developed a wide network of protected regions, including:

• National Parks: Over 100, such as Jim Corbett, Kaziranga, and Gir.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: More than 550 across states.
• Biosphere Reserves: 18 designated zones combining conservation and sustainable use (e.g., Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, and Sunderbans).
• Ramsar Wetlands: Over 80 sites under the Ramsar Convention for wetland conservation.

3. Project Initiatives:

• Project Tiger (1973): Safeguards tiger populations through habitat protection.
• Project Elephant (1992): Focuses on elephant corridors and human-wildlife conflict mitigation.
• Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (2008): Aims at conservation of lesser-known species.

4. Community and International Efforts: India actively participates in global environmental treaties such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). Community-led initiatives like Chipko Movement and Joint Forest Management (JFM) reflect grassroots participation in conservation.

Emerging Challenges and Sustainable Management

Despite progress, several ecological pressures persist: deforestation, habitat fragmentation, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. The loss of forest cover affects carbon sequestration and biodiversity stability. Poaching, illegal wildlife trade, and developmental encroachments remain serious threats.
The path forward lies in sustainable resource management, eco-restoration, and environmental education. Promoting ecotourism, enhancing wildlife corridors, and adopting climate-resilient conservation strategies are essential for balancing development with ecological preservation.