Important International Frameworks for Ocean Governance

International Frameworks for Ocean Governance

Ocean governance is shaped by international agreements and institutions that regulate maritime activities, protect marine ecosystems and guide the sustainable use of ocean resources. Together, these frameworks support international law and cooperation in managing the oceans, including areas beyond national jurisdiction.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Adopted in 1982 and in force from 1994, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is often called the “Constitution for the Oceans.” It provides the overarching legal framework for ocean and sea activities. As of October 2024, it had 172 parties. UNCLOS sets out the rights and obligations of States in maritime zones, including territorial seas, contiguous zones, exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and the high seas. It addresses navigation, marine scientific research and the exploration and use of marine resources. The Convention also requires the protection and preservation of the marine environment. It provides a framework for more specific rules to be developed through the work of competent international organisations. Its broad scope makes it central to international law and to cooperation over ocean spaces and resources.

BBNJ Agreement and International Seabed Authority

The Agreement on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, known as the BBNJ Agreement or High Seas Treaty, is a legally binding agreement under UNCLOS. Adopted in June 2023, it entered into force in January 2026. Its entry-into-force provision required 60 instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession and a 120-day period after deposit of the 60th instrument. The agreement addresses the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Its provisions include mechanisms for establishing marine protected areas (MPAs), environmental impact assessments (EIAs), the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources, capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology to developing countries. These measures support more coordinated management of biodiversity in the high seas and international seabed area. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) was established in 1994 under UNCLOS. Headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, it organises, regulates and controls mineral-resource activities in the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction, known as “the Area.” All UNCLOS parties are members of the ISA; it has 172 members. The ISA is also mandated to ensure effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects arising from deep-seabed activities. Exploration contracts have been approved, but commercial deep-sea mining has not been authorised; rules for exploitation remain under deliberation. The ISA’s role illustrates the challenge of balancing resource use with protection of the global commons.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a United Nations specialised agency and the global standard-setting authority for the safety, security and environmental performance of international shipping. Based in London, it had 176 Member States as of 2025. The IMO develops rules covering ship design, construction, equipment and operation, as well as the prevention of marine pollution. Two important IMO-facilitated treaties are the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). SOLAS establishes minimum safety standards for merchant ships. MARPOL aims to prevent pollution of the marine environment from ships, including pollution caused by operational discharges and accidental spills.

Convention on Biological Diversity and Kunming-Montreal GBF

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a primary international legal instrument focused on the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. It has been ratified by almost every country. The CBD’s programme on marine and coastal biodiversity covers integrated management, living resources, protected areas, mariculture and invasive alien species. In 2022, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) was agreed at the CBD’s COP15. It sets 23 global targets for nature conservation. A prominent GBF commitment is the “30 by 30” target: protecting at least 30% of global land and ocean surface by 2030. The target applies through effectively managed protected areas and other conservation measures. It links biodiversity goals with sustainable ocean management.

UNEP Regional Seas Programme

Established in 1974, the UNEP Regional Seas Programme promotes cooperation among neighbouring countries that share marine and coastal environments. It is an action-oriented programme that uses integrated, ecosystem-based approaches to address marine pollution and environmental degradation. The programme covers 18 regions globally. Fourteen are underpinned by legally binding conventions and associated protocols addressing specific issues. Regional cooperation helps coordinate national action to protect shared waters, reduce marine pollution and strengthen ecosystem resilience. The programme also supports implementation of ocean-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Key Prelims Takeaways

• UNCLOS: Adopted in 1982; in force from 1994; had 172 parties as of October 2024.
• BBNJ Agreement: Adopted in June 2023 under UNCLOS; entered into force in January 2026.
• ISA: Established in 1994; regulates mineral-resource activities in the Area and has 172 members.
• IMO: UN specialised agency for international shipping; key treaties include SOLAS and MARPOL.
• CBD and GBF: The 2022 framework sets 23 targets, including the 30 by 30 goal for 2030.
• UNEP Regional Seas Programme: Established in 1974; covers 18 regions, 14 with binding conventions and protocols.

Recent Context

The 2026 Indo-Pacific Regional Dialogue, hosted by the Indian Navy, listed collaborative approaches to ocean governance among its five focus areas. Its agenda connects maritime resilience and the management of ocean activities and resources with the principles reflected in these frameworks.